LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Shelf ri^4- 

TJNITED STATES OF AMEPaOA. 



The Geogeapiy of Pennsyitania 



PHYSICAL AKD DESCRIPTIVE 



BY 



JACQUES W. RED WAY 




/%^jfUj 



SYEACUSE N Y 

0. W. BARDEEN PUBLISHER 

1891 



Copyright 1889 by J. W. Red way 



Note by the Publisher. — As the author's engagements made 
it impracticable for him to read the proof under conditions which 
our printing-office could grant, this volume has been printed 
without his supervision, and the Index was made without his 
oversight. The Maps are also a subsequent suggestion and no 
part of his original plan. But the proof has been carefully read 
by Miss Speakman, teacher of geography in the West Chester 
State Normal School, and revised by Principal Philips of the 
same school. No essential changes have been made in the text 
except the correction of manifest errors. 



PREFACE. 



The usefulness of this manual depends on the judg- 
ment of the teacher. It is a manual of geography and 
not of 'improved methods' of teaching. Only the 
essential features of the geography of the State are 
here printed. Many of the questions following the 
various chapters are left unanswered in the text. 
Whether or not the information to which they allude 
is sought out depends upon the interest which teacher 
and pupil take in the subject. 

The statistics of the State will not be i^ublished until 
after the census returns of 1890 have been made. 

J. W. R. 

Philadelphia, Sept. 1, JS89. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

Page 
Position, Boundaries and Area.. 17 

Mountains and Valleys .21 

Drainage 25 

The Soil and its Productions. — Climate 29 

Mineral Wealth.— Coal 34 

Mineral Wealth. — Iron, Petroleum, Etc .37 

Industries 40 

Commerce and Transportation .44 

Government .47 

Education 51 

History 55 

Cities and Towns .59 

PART II. 

Introductory 70 

Mountains and Mountain-Building 70 

Rivers and Earth-Sculpture 72 

Lakes 76 

Glaciers. 78 

The Weather Bureau 81 

Coal 83 

Petroleum _ 88 

Natural Gas ..90 

Iron _ 91 

Colleges and Schools - ..93 



PART I. 



I. 

POSITION, AREA, AND GENERAL 

FEATURES. 

Pennsylvania is the second in size of the Middle At- 
lantic States. It lies mainly between !New York, New 
Jersey, Maryland and Ohio, but it is also bordered by 
West Virginia and Delaware. The north-western part 
reaches the shores of Lake Erie ; the south-eastern is 
washed by the tides of Delaware Bay. 

The northern boundary varies from 750 feet north to 
350 feet south of the 42d parallel. The boundary sep- 
arating the State from Delaware is an arc of a circle 
twelve miles distant from the court house at New Castle. 
This arc leaves a small angular strip extending inta 
Maryland known as the 'Maryland Triangle.' The 
famous Mason and Dixon's Line, lat. 39° 43' N., is the 
southern boundary, and the meridian of 80° 32' W., 
the western. 

The area of the State, including 230 miles of navigable 
waters, is 45,015 square miles. Its greatest length is 
302 miles, and its maximum breadth 177 miles. It is 

(17) 



18 GEOGEAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA, 

about one-sixth the size of Texas, and forty times as 
large as Rhode Island. There are twenty-nine larger and 
fifteen smaller States in the Union. 

The cession of certain lands by New York to the 
United States left a small triangular strip enclosed by 
New York, the 42d parallel, and Lake Erie, in the pos- 
session of the United States. This strip, known as the 
Triangle, was purchased by the State in 1792. 

The surface of the State is greatly diversified, being a 
succession of mountains, valleys, plateaus and caflons. 
The greater part of the State is situated in the Atlantic 
slope and Mississippi Valley, but a small area in the 
northern part lies in the the basin of the St. Lawrence. 

The south-eastern district is the open country lying 
between the Blue Mountains and the sea. This triangu- 
lar section is an expanse of rolling lands, in no place 
more than 700 feet above the sea level. It is a fertile 
region of cultivated farms, inhabited by nearly two mil- 
lion people. 

The middle belt includes the country traversed by the 
Appalachian Mountain System. This region is a succes- 
sion of mountain ranges and table-lands, valleys and 
cafions. This highland region is the principal iron- and 
anthracite coal-producing region on the Western Con- 
tinent. 

The western section consists of a plateau having an 
average elevation of 700 to 900 feet above the sea-level 
and lies to the west and north-west of the Alleghany 
Mountains. This region produces most of the bitumin- 
ous coal and four-fifths of the petroleum mined in the 
United States. 



POSITION. AREA, AXD GENERAL FEATURES. 19 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— No attempt has been made to confine the following 
questions to the matter contained in the text. On the contrary, many of 
the answers must be sought from other sources by both teacher and pupiL 
The object is to inculcate original thought. Never mind if you occasionally 
make an error. The boy whociever tumbles or falls will never become a 
good \STestler, runner or skater. Bettor err a hundred times than not to 
think at ail. The pupil who fears to hnzard an opinion for fear of making a 
blunder, will go through life a paracsitic weakling. Discuss every point 
thoroughly and endeavor so far as possible to fortify every statement with 
evidence. Do not necessarily accept a statement because you find it made 
in a text-book, but consult official reports and specific works on the subject. 
The recitation is the place where these questions should be discussed. Do 
not permit anything to be recited verbatim. Use the book in the recitation. 
Commend every answer that shows original thought whether correct or not 
All the leading text-books of geography have good special maps of Penn- 
sylvania. The railway and transportation lines in Appleton's are the most 
complete and accurately plotted. 

What States border Pennsylvania? Which of these is larger? 
Which are smaller? 

AMiat State or States north? cast? south? west? 

What is the extent of the lake coast? 

Prove it by using the scale of miles. 

Is the northern boundary between Delaware River and the Tri- 
angle a parallel of latitude? Why? 

AVTiat historical reason for calling the boundary between Penn- 
sylvania and Delaware an arc of a circle? 

In what State is New Castle? 

Who were Mason and Di.xon? 

Does any part of the State extend further south than Mason 
and Dixon's line? 

^Vl\ich is nearest the northern boundary of the State, the equa- 
tor or the north pole? 

3Iake a list of t^n States larger and ten smaller than Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Which of the territories is smaller than Pennsylvania? 

What and where is the Triangle? 

Wiiy was it purchased by the St.ate? 

If the 42d parallel w^cre continued to the shores of Lake Erie, 
how much lake coast would the State have? 

What is the greatest length of the St>at<} north and south? 



20 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

What is its greatest breadth east and west? 
In what river basins does the State chiefly lie? 
What part of the State is included in the eastern section? Inthe^ 
middle or highland belt? in tlie Avestern section? 
Which of these regions is the highest? 
Which contains the greatest population? 
What is the chief industry of each? 



II. 

MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS. 

The ranges of the Appalachian System cross the State 
from north-east to south-west. Of various ranges which 
compose this system the Blue and the Alleghany ranges 
are the most massive, and characteristic. None of the 
ranges or folds are continuous, nor is the number of 
ridges uniform. A range extends a distance of perhaps 
50 or 100 miles and then disappears. A few miles be- 
yond another ridge takes its place, rising perhaps in line 
with the former though possibly to the right or to the 
left. 

South Mountain, which in Pennsylvania is a low out- 
lying rise of land, extends north-eastward into the New 
England States, where it is known as the Green and the 
Taghanic Mountains. In Virginia it is known as the 
Blue Ridge and in North Carolina as Smoky Mountains. 
Here its elevation increases until the highest peaks 
reach an altitude of over 6,000 feet. 

The intermediate ranges between the Blue and the 
Alleghany Mountains are marked by a singular uni- 
formity in height. Their crests vary but little from an 
average elevation of 1,500 feet. Many of these ridges, 
■especially the Pocono Mountains, are flat-topped table- 
lands rather than typical mountain ranges. 

The highest land within the State is probably along 
the crest of Great Savage Mountain, an outlying ridge 
of the Alleghany Mountains. A surveyed summit on 



22 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

Negro Mountain has an altitude of 2,8^6 feet ; another 
on Keyser Ridge, an elevation of 2,843 feet. It is prob- 
able that the highest crests reach an elevation of 3,500 
feet or more. 

The valleys lying between the mountain ranges are 
usually classified as the * rich valleys ' and the * poor 
valleys.' The former are comparatively level basins 
enclosed by high mountain barriers. They are under- 
laid by limestone foundations, and are remarkable for 
their fertility. Nittany and Kishicoquilis, among the 
largest of these valleys, have an aggregate area of nearly 
1,000 square miles. 

Great Valley, lying between South Mountain and the 
Blue Mountains, traverses the State from east to south. 
This valley, formed by the foldings of the Appalachian 
mountain system, extends from Canada almost to the 
alluvial lands of the Gulf Coast, a distance of nearly 
one thousand miles. It embraces a region that for pro- 
ductiveness is not surpassed by any other part of the 
Atlantic slope. Wyoming, Bald Eagle, Schuylkill, 
Cumberland, Pequea Valleys, are also highly productive 
regions. They are noted for their picturesque scenery. 

Besides the valleys which lie between the numerous 
mountain folds, there are several which cross them. 
These are known as 'water-gaps' and ^wind-gaps.' In 
every case they are deep ravines which have been cut 
through the range during its upheaval, by the streams 
which flow in them. There are five such gaps in the 
Blue Mountains, where the Delaware, Schuylkill, Lehigh, 
Swatara, and Susquehanna rivers have pierced the range. 
The wind-gaps, of which there are many, are the aban- 



MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS. 23 

doned channels of streams which formerly flowed in 
them. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— In the preparation of this lesson have the pupils read 
the chapter on Mountains in the second part of this manual. In connection 
therewith, a moulding-board exercise on mountain-formation will be of ex- 
cellent service. Do not begin the moulding exercise by a description of an 
isolated hill or mountain: the mountain ra>me is the unit. Do not teach the 
pupils that a mountain range consists of a number of peaks in lines. In the 
light of modern science such teaching is ridiculous. The essential feature of 
a mountain range is that it is a fold or wrinkle in the earth's crust, much 
worn by the action of water. 

What is a mountain range? A mountain system? 

Can you explain how mountain ranges came to be formed? 

Does the wrinkled hand of an aged person, or a shriveled apple 
illustrate this? 

Do you think mountains were formed in a very short time, or 
that their upheaval required a great length of time? 

Can you explain how the Delaware and other rivers have been 
able to flow across one or more mountain-ranges? 

In what direction do the ranges of the Appalachian system cross 
the State? 

In what part of the United States is this system? 

Does it extend beyond the United States? 

By what names are parts of this system known in New York? 

In what part of Pennsylvania is South Mountain? 

Is it a lofty or a low range in Pennsylvania? 

What large towns at or near the place where South Mountain 
is traversed by the Delaware River? 

By what name is this mountain known in Virginia? in North 
Carolina? m the New England States? 

Name some of the principal ranges of the system in Pennsyl- 
vania? 

In what part of the State are the highest ranges of this system? 

What is a table-land? Ans. — A table-land is commonly a flat- 
topped mountain, while a -plateau is any continuous highland of 
considerable extent. The table-land is more properly called a 
mfena (pro. mS'sa). 

What is a valley? 



24 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

Do valleys lie between mountain ranges or across them? 
What is the difference between a valley and a pass? 
What is said of the ' rich ' valleys of the State? 
Name some of the most important valleys near you. 
Where is Great Valley? 
Does it extend beyond Pennsylvania? 
What are ' water-gaps ' and ' wind-gaps'? 
Can you explain how they were formed? 



III. 

DRAINAGE. 

The surface of the State is drained practically by 
three rivers and their branches, the Delaware, the Sus- 
quehanna and the Ohio, A small part of the middle 
belt lies in the watershed of the Genesee River, and 
most of the Triangle is situated in the slope of Lake Erie. 
These portions, covering only a few square miles in 
area, belong to the basin of the St. Lawrence. 

Delaware River has its main sources in New York, 
among the Kaatskill Mountains. Flowing in a southerly 
course it breaks through the Blue or Kitattinny Moun- 
tains at the famous water-gap near Stroudsburg, Monroe 
Co. From this point to Trenton, New Jersey, the river 
is a series of shallows and rapids. At Trenton is the 
highest tide-water, and to this point light draught 
steamboats ascend with the flooding of the tide. Large 
ocean steamers find a safe depth of water as far as Phil- 
adelphia, and below this city the river widens out into 
the broad estuary known as Delaware Bay. The most 
important tributaries in Pennsylvania are the Schuylkill 
and Lehigh Rivers, neither of which is navigable — ex- 
cept by the canals which border it. 

The Susquehanna, which with its branches drains 
the middle region, is one of the longest rivers of the 
Atlantic slope of the United States. The North Branch 
rises in the foot-hills of the Kaatskill Mountains in New 
York, the main source being in Otsego Lake. The 

(25) 



26 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

West Branch has its sources west of the Alleghany 
Mountains, only a few miles distant from those of the 
Alleghany River. 

At Sunbury, Northumberland county, the two branches 
unite, and pierce successively the ranges of the Appa- 
lachian System. Flowing in a wide but shallow chan- 
nel the river finally enters Chesapeake Bay, 

No part of the Susquehanna is navigable for vessels, 
but there is probably no other river south of Maine upon 
whose waters half so much lumber is rafted. The 
mouth of the river is apt to be clogged with ice at the 
breaking up of winter, and there is no other river in the 
United States in which the ice-gorge is so heavy and 
destructive. The Juniata, Swatara, Raystown, Lacka- 
wanna, and Pine are among the most important branches 
in Pennsylvania. 

The Ohio and tributaries drain the western part of 
the State. This river is formed by the junction of the 
Alleghany and the Monongahela Rivers. The former 
is navigable a distance of about sixty miles, while the 
dams across the latter have given it slack-water naviga- 
tion for a considerably greater distance. 

The principal tributaries of the Alleghany are Kis- 
kiminitas. Red Bank, Clarion and French Creeks: the 
Youghiogheny (yo'liOgant) is the only important branch 
of the Monongahela. From the confluence of these 
rivers there is nearly 20,000 miles of navigation, opening 
up direct commercial intercourse with more than thirty 
millions of people. 

Lakes. — Pennsylvania lies mainly south of the lake- 
belt, and therefore is almost destitute of lakes or ponds. 
Excepting Lake Erie, the existing lakes are insignifi- 



DRAINAGE. 27 

cant in size and few in number. All of them lie north 
of the moraine or low walls of gravel that were pushed 
into the northern part of the State during the glacial 
epoch. They are most numerous in Pike, Wayne, and 
Crawford counties. 

Lake Erie, the fourth in size of the Great Lakes,, 
covers an area of 7,800 square miles. Its surface-level 
is 573 feet above that of the sea. Its depth is only 120 
feet, and it is probably the shallowest lake of considerable- 
size in the world. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teachbr.— In teachin;? the hydrography of rivers and running 
water an out-of-door exercise on a rainy day is advisable. The i-ills which 
trickle along the road will show on a small scale all the phenomena that 
such rivers as the Colorado and the Mississippi show on a grand scale. Lead 
the pupils to discover that in one part of its course the stream is erosive; in 
another part sediment-bearing; in another that it is building a plain. Have 
each pupil draw a light pencil line on the map that shall separate the various 
river-basins or water-sheds of the State. This line is a rim or ridge called a 
'divide'— not a water-shed. Do not call it a 'water-parting. ' Impress the 
fact that the divide may not always correspond with the crest of a moun- 
tain-range—the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers will show this. Lakes 
and lake-basins can be conveniently studied on the moulding-board. Im- 
press the fact that lakes are often ephemeral features of a river,— silted up 
by the stream which flows into it and reduced in size by the outlet which 
constantly cuts its rim lower. Read also the chapters on Kivers, Lakes, and 
Glaciers. 

What is a river? 

What is the source of a river? the mouth? 

Has a river ever more than one source? 

Has a river ever more than one mouth? 

What is a delta? 

Can you explain how the delta is formed? 

Where does the * mud ' or silt sometimes in the water of a flow- 
ing stream come from? What becomes of it? 

Can you explain why a river or creek will wear deep gulches^ 
in one place, and spread silt over the land in another? 

When is a river most apt to be muddy? 



28 GEOGRAPHY OF PENKSYLVANIA. 

Does a stream whose waters are always clear wear away its 
bed rapidly? 

Draw light pencil lines which shall separate the Susquehanna 
and its tributaries from the Ohio and its branches. From the 
Delaware River and its branches. These lines are called divides, 
and they separate the various water-sheds or river-basins of the 
State. 

Is any part of the State drained by streams which flow into 
Lake Erie? by rivers which flow into Lake Ontario? 

Name the principal branches of Delaware River. Of Susque- 
hanna River. Of Ohio River. 

Which is the longer, Delaware River or Susquehanna Riv 

Which has the greater water-shed? 

Do any parts of these watersheds lie outside the State? 

Where does the Delaware River rise? Susquehanna Riverf 
What streams form the Ohio? In what direction does each tribu- 
tary flow? 

In what part of the State are there a number of small lakes or 
ponds? 

Are any of them salt? Why? 

Can you tell how salt lakes are formed? 

Are all lakes without outlet salt? 

How would a vessel go from Erie to Philadelphia? 

Which has the greater number of lakes, Pennsylvania or New 
York? 



VI. 

THE SOIL AND ITS PRODUCTS.— 

CLIMATE. 

Soil, — There are many varieties of soil in the State, . 
but the most fertile are those of the valleys, and of the- 
limestone region in the south-east. The limestone, or 
rich valleys are especially productive. The mountain 
slopes of the middle belt are generally uncultivated, not . 
because the soil is poor, but from the abundance of rock 
and general roughness of the land. This region is well 
adapted to grazing. 

In the anthracite region and the serpentine barrens 
of the north-east much of the soil is worthless. It is 
destitute of grass and, except a variety of laurel, has 
little or no vegetation. 

Climate. — The climate of so large a State must of 
necessity differ greatly in various localities. The eastern 
and western belts ha\e nearly the average temperature, 
being rather cooler in the northern than in the soutliern 
parts. 

The middle belt is subject to much greater extremes 
of temperature. In the northern part of this belt the 
winters are extremely cold, and snow often covers 
the ground for four months of the year. In the south- 
ern part, the winters are much milder, but the narrow 
valleys are often intolerably hot in summer. 

The rainfall varies from 37 inches in the eastern to 43 
in the western part — enough to furnish an abundance 

(39) 



30 GEOGRAPHY OF PENN^SYLVANIA. 

of moisture to every part of the State. Thunder storms 
are frequent, but not unusually violent. The tornadoes 
that are so frequent in the Mississippi Valley rarely occur 
in Pennsylvania. 

There are weather-bureau stations at Philadelphia, 
Erie, Pittsburgh and Williamsport. At these stations 
daily reports and indications of the weather are received, 
and from them distributed to various parts of the State. 
There are also stations at Brownsville, Freeport, Con- 
fluence, New Geneva and Oil City, where the rise and 
fall of the river are observed, and cautionary signals 
exhibited. 

Yegetation. — Much of the highland region is cov- 
ered with growths of oak. Pine is also abundant, and 
many million feet of pine timber are yearly floated down 
the streams which drain the middle belt. 

Hemlock, beech, chestnut, maple, sugar-maple, wal- 
nut, hickory and ash, are also important lumber-yield- 
ing trees. The wild cherry, wild grape, whortleberry, 
wild strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, persimmon and 
wild plum are still abundant. In addition to these are 
the various cultivated grains, fruits, grasses and other 
plants of economical use which have been introduced 
since the advent of the white men. 

During past years the destruction of forestry has been 
enormous. The iron furnaces have cleared large areas, 
forest fires have destroyed extensive tracts, and many 
thousand trees have been ' barked ' to supply the tan- 
neries. The enormous demand for railway sleepers and 
for building lumber has also served nearly to clear the 
^tate of available timber. 



PRODUCTS. 31 

Animal Life. — Few States in the Union have a 
greater variety of animal life than is to be found in 
Pennsylvania. The deer and the fox are more or less 
common in various parts of the State. The black bear, 
puma or panther, and wild-cat are still to be found 
in the mountain fastnesses. A species of small wolf is 
occasionally met with, and small game, such as the 
weasel, hedge-hog, ground-hog and squirrel are common. 

The eagle, hawk and carnivorous birds of several spe- 
cies, together with the pheasant, partridge and other 
game birds are still common. The wild turkey is rarely 
seen, but wild water-fowl are abundant along the 
streams. Nearly one hundred and forty varieties of 
fish have been found in the rivers and littoral waters of 
the State, many of them being excellent for food. The 
shad caught in Delaware River and Bay are famous for 
their excellence. The U. S. Fish Commission have 
established hatching stations at Corry, and Marietta, 
near Lancaster. The ' ivy/ consisting mainly of sal- 
mon, shad, and trout, are distributed among the streams 
of the State. 

Of the reptiles found within the State only two are 

venomous, the copperhead and the rattlesnake. The 

former is rarely seen. Rattlesnakes are common in the 

mountains, and, in spite of their natural enemies, the 

black snake, deer, and hog, they resist extermination. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— It Is well to have specimens of the different type* of 
Boil kept where pupils can have access to them. Wide-mouthed bottles are 
handy for this purpose. Gravel and sand should be in their natural state; 
red loam and black loam should be sifted; clay should be In large selected 
lumps which will show its tenacious quality. Instruct pupils in the names 
and properties of the various plants in the neighborhood. Have good spec- 
imens of the various kinds of building and ornamental timber,— one side 



32 GEOGRAPHY OF PENN^SYLVANIA. 

ahowinff the bark, the other side dressed so as to show the grain of the 
piece. Keep them where they can be handled by the pupils, and insist on 
their preservation. It is well to have a herbarium consisting of useful 
medicuial plants, grasses, and a few ornamental plants. Display the 
flower, one or more leaves, part of the stalk and cleaned root of the larger 
plants; the smaller ones may be preserved entire. Encourage the pupils to 
collect and teach them how to press and display the plants. Familiarize 
pupils with such insects and birds as are injurious, and with those that 
are beneficial to the fanner. Instruct them how to read the thermometer, 
and if possible the barometer. Explain the causes of dew, fog, rain, and 
snow, and teach the various forms of clouds. Have them observe the di- 
rection from which storm-bearing winds usually come, and impress on them 
the fact that the storm nearly always clears up with the wind in the oppo- 
site direction. Prepare a set of weather flags, such as are used in the U. S. 
Weather Bureau, and teach the manner of their use. Read the chapter en- 
titled The Weather Bureau. 

What kinds of soil are found in tlie neighborhood where you 
live? 

When is soil poor, and when fertile? 

Do all plants require the same kind of soil? 

How can worn-out soil be made productive ? 

Can you raise grain year after year on the same land and have 
good crops at the end of several years? 

Can you tell what minerals a plant takes from the soil ? 

What is said about the climate of the State? 

In what part will you find the coldest weather? 

Which has the greater rainfall, the eastern or the western part 
of the State? 

In what cities are there weather stations? 

Can you tell what the different weather flags mean 

AVhat is a tornado? 

What would be the result if there were no rain? 

Where does the rain come from? 

Where do the clouds come from? 

What kind of forest trees grow in your neighborhood? 

Is any of the timber used to make lumber? 

What kinds of wood are noted for hardness and strength? 
What kinds of wood are soft? What kinds are mainly used in 
building houses? What kind are useful for their bark? 

What kinds of wild fruit are found in the State? 



PRODUCTS. 33 

Along what rivers is most of the timber obtained? How is it 
sent to market? 

Of what use are oak and hemlock bark? 

What are railway sleepers? 

Make a list of the wild animals you have seen that are found in 
the State. 

Can you name any birds and insects that are injurious to the 
fanner? Why? Can you name any that are beneficial? Why? 

What birds and what insects are injurious lo fruit trees? 

What kinds of fish in the streams near where you live? 

Why are rattlesnakes so called ? How do black snakes, deer, 
and hogs kill them? 

In what towns of the State are there fish-hatching stations? 



V. 
MINERAL WEALTH.— COAL. 

No other State in the Union surpasses Pennsylvania 
in the extent and wealth of mineral products. Nearly 
all the anthracite coal, a large part of the bituminous 
coal, three-fourths of the j^etroleum, and about half the 
pig-iron produced in the United States are obtained 
from the mines in Pennsylvania. 

Coal. — The anthracite coal-fields are mainly in the 
heart of the Appalachian Mountains and are commonly 
designated as the northern, middle, and southern fields. 
They underlie an area of rather less than five hundred 
square miles. Most of the collieries of the northern 
fields are near Scranton, Pittston, and Wilkesbarre. 
Mahanoy City, Shenandoah and Shamokin are the chief 
centres of the middle field. The southern field, though 
large, has fewer productive collieries. These are mainly 
between Pottsville, Tamaqua and Mauch Chunk. 

One of the largest seams. Mammoth Vein, has a 
depth of nearly sixty feet. In some instances ten or 
twelve seams have been penetrated in sinking a single 
shaft. These fields are small compared with those of 
the bituminous coal, and it is thought that the supply 
will last hardly more than two hundred years. 

The bituminous fields lie mainly west of the AppaL 
achian Mountains, and extend through every county 
west of the Alleghany Mountains, in seams varying from 
the thickness of a sheet of paper to that of twelve feet. 

(34) 



3IINEKAL WEALTH. 35 

Seams less than three feet in thickness are not com- 
monly worked with profit. 

There are many sorts of bituminous coal, but they 
differ only in the amount of volatile matter, such as 
illuminating-gas, coal-tar, etc., which they contain. A 
kind called semi-bituminous is much like ordinary an- 
thracite coal. Another variety known as splint or block- 
coal contains about thirty-five per cent of gas. It is 
much used in the manufacture of illuminating gas, and 
in the smelting of certain kinds of iron ore. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— Have the pupils read carefully the chapter on Coal in 
the second part of the manual. Procure specimens of graphite, anthracite, 
block, common bituminous, and cannel coals. Add to these specimens of 
coke, charcoal and lamp-black; if possible, also a diamond to complete the 
series. Impress the pupils with the fact that all these minerals are lorms 
of carbon, and that they differ in appearance only. Fragments of coal-bear- 
ing rock showing the prints of ferns, equisetas, and other plants of the coal 
period may be readily procured. These will furnish very instructive object- 
lessons concerning the vegetable origin of coal. It will be a good plan, also, 
to demonstrate that anthracite coal is nearly pure carbon, while bituminous 
coal contains a mixture of hydro-carbon compounds. This can be easily 
done by placing a piece of soft coal in a clay pipe, luting the bowl with clay, 
and heating it over the flame of an alcohol lamp. The smoke which escapes 
through the stem of the pipe is an impure illuminating gas, and may be 
lighted as it escapes. More or less coal-tar is condensed in the stem, and 
there finally remains in the bowl a piece of coke, which does not differ except 
in form from anthracite coal. Like anthracite it burns with but little flame 
and no visible smoke. Encourage the pupils to distinguish the different 
varieties of coal. 

In what part of the State is anthracite coal found? 

In what counties is each of the three fields or basins? 

What is the diilerence between anthracite and bituminous coal 
in appearance? in hardness? in behavior when burned? 

Can you describe how it is obtained? 

What is a coal-breaker? 

How is the coal sorted so that blocks of the same size are col- 
lected together? 

Wh^t is the shaft of a mine? What are the pillars? 



36 GEOGRAPHY OF PENITSYLVANIA. 

How many pounds of coal in a long ton? in a short ton? 

How thick are the coal seams? 

Name five towns or cities that are known as coal-mining towns. 

To what cities is most of the anthracite coal shipped? the bitu- 
minous coal? 

How is the coal conveyed to the various markets? 

How does Pennsylvania compare with other States in the pro- 
duction of coal? 

In what counties is most of the bituminous coal mined? 

How is coke made? 

For what is it used? 

Can you describe how the coal-beds were formed ? 

Will graphite or ' black lead ' burn? 

For what is it mainly used? 

Is it made from, or does it contain, any lead? 

Can you tell why coal is sometimes called ' condensed sun-heat? *" 

Explain the way in which coal becomes a force. 

Which can do the most work in a day, a strong man or a pound 
of coal? 



VI. 

MINERAL WEALTH.— IPvON AND OTHER 

MINERALS. 

Iron.— Iron ore is widely distributed over the State. 
The most productive deposits occur at the famous Corn- 
wall mines in Lebanon county. Another valuable de- 
posit in Oley Valley, Berks county, yields a metal fully 
equal to the best Swedish iron. Much of the iron pro- 
duct of the State comes from the ore-deposits of Michi- 
gan and New York, which is sent to the smelters of 
Pennsylvania for shipment. 

Petroleum. — Petroleum or 'rock-oiP was first 
brought into general notice in 1859. Since that time 
the production has enormously increased until at the 
present time the refined oil under the names of ' coal- 
oil ' and ^ kerosene ' is shipped to all parts of the civil- 
ized world. Petroleum was first produced in Venango 
county. Since that time the oil-horizon has been found 
to underlie nearly the whole basin of the Alleghany 
River. 

Natural Gas. — Natural gas is abundant in the 
western part of the State. It does not differ materially 
in quality from that manufactured at the gas works, 
and in many of the cities and towns in the western part 
of the State it is used for both lighting and heating pur- 
poses. In the city of Pittsburgh it has almost entirely 
supplanted the use of coal for generating steam. 

(37) 



38 GEOGRAPHY OF PENKSYLVANIA. 

Salt. — Salt occurs in the western part of the State. 
Many of the salt deposits underlie beds of bituminous 
coal. 

Zinc is found in several localities, notably at Friedens- 
ville. 

Nickel is obtained at the famous Gap Mine near 
Lancaster. Much of the metal taken from this mine is 
used in the manufacture of three-cent and five-cent 
coins of the United States. Quarries of marble and 
other building stone are numerous, and yield an abund- 
ance of slate, sand-stone, flag-stones, and granite. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— Have the pupils read the chapters on Iron, Petroleum 
and Natural Gas at the end of the manual. If possible procure the follow- 
ing: Several pieces each of iron ore, pig iron, spiegel iron (used in making 
steel), fine cast iron showing fresh fracture, wrought iron and steel. It is 
an instructive experiment, and one easily made to fuse a piece of iron ore, 
the size of a shot, with a blow-pipe on charcoal. It is best to pulverize the 
ore and mix it with about twice as much baking soda. Make a little cavity 
in the charcoal in which the ore may be placed and fuse the mixture for two 
or three minutes. If fairly well done, a globule of metallic iron will be 
formed. By skillful questioning develop the physical differences between 
cast iron and wrought iron. Explain as well as you can the manner in 
which steel is made. Procure specimens of crude petroleum, refined oil and 
naphtha. Keep them in closely sealed bottles. Make a saturated solution of 
common salt and place in it several short pieces of thread on which the 
crystals of salt may form. Let each pupil examine the crystals with a mag- 
nifying glass in order to note the cubical shape of the crystals. Procure also 
pieces of slate, marble, sand-stone, granite and other building stone that 
may be found in the neighborhood. Pieces of zinc and nickel and their ores 
will also be useful. 

Is iron taken from the earth in the form of a metal ? 
Can you describe the manner in which the metal is obtaiaed 
from the ore? 
With wliat kinds of iron ore are you acquainted? 
What minerals are used in smelting iron? 
What is pig iron ? cast iron ? 
What is the difference between cast iron and wrought iron ? 



MIIJ^ERAL WEALTH. 39 

"Would cast iron be suitable for making railway rails or engine- 
boilers? Why? 

Why are watch-springs, knife-blades, etc., made of steel instead 
of iron? 

Why is a pound of iron made into watch-springs worth more 
than a pound of ordinary cast iron? 

In what counties of the State is iron ore mined? 

Is all the iron produced in the State made from Permsylvania 
ore? 

What State produces the most iron ore? J. /is.— Michigan pro- 
duces the most ore; Pennsylvania manufactures the most iron. 
The Gogebic mines of Michigan are celebrated for the quality of 
their ore. 

For what is petroleum used? 

Can you describe the manner in which it is obtained? 

What is meant by ' striking oil '? 

What is a * spouter '? 

What is meant by ' torpedoing ' a well? 

Is petroleum itself ever used for burning in lamps? 

What is a refinery? 

What useful substances are obtained from petroleum? 

In what ways is petroleum sent to market ? 

What is a pipe-line? a tank car? 

In what part of the State is petroleum mined? in what river 
basin? 

What counties produce large quantities of it? 

How is natural gas obtained? 

For what is it used ? 

Of two manufacturing establishments, one using coal and the 
other gas for generating steam, which would be more hkely to 
prosper? Why? 

Can you describe the way in which gas is used to generate 
steam? 

In what part of the State is natural gas most abundant? 

Name one or more cities which are lighted and heated by it. 

For what is salt used? How is it obtained? 

Where is zinc found? Name some of its uses. 

For what is nickel used? 

How does nickel compare with silver in color? in luster? in 
hardness? 

In what part of the State is it found? 



VII. 

INDUSTRIES. 

Because of the variety and abnndance of the natural 
resources of the State, there is a great diversity of in- 
dustries. Probably in no other densely peopled State 
are the main industries, agriculture, mining, and manu- 
facture so evenly balanced. 

Agriculture. — Since the first settlement of the State 
agriculture has been a leading employment, and in spite 
of the great amount of unproductive land, the State 
ranks among the foremost in the value of its farms and 
farm-products. Hay, corn, wheat, oats and tobacco are 
the most valuable crops, and there are now nearly a 
quarter of a million farms under cultivation. 

Garden, dairy, and fruit-farming are extensively car- 
ried on in the south-eastern part of the State, where the 
population is densest, and in the value of the products 
this State is surpassed by New York only. Stock-farm- 
ing is carried on mainly in the middle belt. During 
late years much attention has been given to the raising 
of thoroughbred stock. 

Mining. — In mining Pennsylvania is and probably 
will always be the foremost State in the Union. Even 
with the rapid development of mining in other States, 
the out-put of the mines is almost equal to that of all 
the other States combined. Luzerne, Schuylkill and 
Lackawanna counties produce four-fifths of the anthra- 

.(40) 



IKDUSTKIES. 41 

cite; the five soutli-western counties nearly all the bitu- 
minous coal. 

Iron is mined in more than thirty counties, Lehigh, 
Lebanon, Berks and Blair yielding an aggregate of 
about 750,000 tons. 

Of the 30,000,000 barrels of petroleum annually pro- 
duced, Warren and McKean counties yield by far the 
largest supply. 

The total value of the crude mineral products in 1880 
was about $200,000,000, the production of which gave 
employment to 150,000 people. In the ten years suc- 
ceeding, the value of the mining out-put has nearly 
doubled. 

Manufactures. — The manufactures of the State sur- 
pass those of every other State except New York. The 
products of iron and steel are nearly equal to those of all 
the remaining States combined, and of the total manu- 
facture of crucible or Bessemer steel three-fourths are 
manufactured in Pennsylvania. The quality of the 
product is not surpassed in any other part of the world. 

The iron-ship yards on Delaware River, the locomo- 
tive building- shops, the glass-works, the tanneries, and 
the lumber-product — all unsurpassed elsewhere in the 
United States — bear testimony to the enterprise of 
Pennsylvania. The value of the manufactures is not far 
from $800,000,000 yearly. 

Lumbering is also an important industry, and in the 
value of the yearly product, Pennsylvania is one of the 
foremost States. The pine forest along the Susque- 
hanna and the hemlock of the north-western counties 
yield an annual supply of about 700,000,000 feet of 



42 GEOGBAPHY OF PEls^NSYLVAN^IA. 

lumber. The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning- 
leather, and the tanneries of the hemlock region are 
among the largest in the world. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— It is well to impress the fact that the industries of 
mankind are the outgrowth of civilization, and at the same time civilization 
and enlightenment are the outgro\Ni;h of industry. They go hand in hand, 
and are mutually dependent. Both are the result of hunger. The mines, 
the mills, the farms, the railways and the steamships have no other use 
than to enable us to procure food and bodily comfort. Our schools educate 
ns, so that by making ourselves useful, we can the more easily feed and 
clothe ourselves. Perhaps some doubtmg pupil will ask if each individual 
might not plant his own grain, herd his own cattle, make his own tools and 
his own clothing. Yes, all this might be done. As a matter of fact, there 
are certain people who live in this manner, b':t unfortunately they are sav- 
ages. Impress also the fact that the distribution of various industries is 
controlled by geographical laws, which man cannot easily modify. One 
cannot profitably cultivate wheat in the anthracite coal region, raise cattle 
in Philadelphia, nor mine coal in Lancaster county. Silk culture would not 
he profitable in Alaska, nor seal-fisheries in Pittsburg. In short, industries 
thrive only where the natural resources which underlie them are found. 

What are the principal products of the farms of Pennsylvania? 

For what are the hay, oats and corn mainly used? the wheat? 

In what part of the State is tobacco raised. Ans.— In Chester, 
Lancaster, and York counties. 

What is meant by garden-farming? dairy-farming? Why are 
garden-farms and dairies most profitable near large cities? 

What is stock-farming, and in what part of the State is it car- 
ried on? 

What is said of the value of the farms in the State? 

What is the rank of the State in mining? 

How does the coal out-put compare with that of the rest of the 
United States? 

Name some of the uses to which coal is put. 

How is it carried to market? 

Name two cities in the United States that are extensive markets 
for anthracite coal. One that is a market for bituminous coal. 

Which counties produce most of the anthracite coal? 

Which produce most of the bituminous coal? 



INDUSTRIES. 43 

In how many counties is iron mined? Which counties produce 
the most? 

What is the value of a ton of coal at the mines? of a ton of pig. 
iron? 

What is the value of a steel rail of ordinary size? 

What is ordinarily the yearly yield of petroleum? 

Which counties yield the greater part? 

What was the value of the crude mineral products in 1880? 

Is the value of the out-put increasing or diminishing? 

In what part of the State are iron and steel manufactures chiefly 
carried on? 

What is meant by crucible or Bessemer steel? 

In what part of the State are the iron-ship yards? 

In what city are most of the textile goods manufactured? 

Wliat is the yearly value of the manufactures? 

In what part of the State is lumbering carried on? Why? 

Where are the tanneries? Why? 



VIII. 
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. 

In its commercial relations the State holds a high 
ranJi. Foreign commerce, however, is somewhat crip- 
pled by the distance of Philadelphia from the ocean, 
and the expensive pilotage on Delaware Bay and Eiver. 
The main outlets by water are — to the Atlantic Ocean 
through Delaware Eiver, to the Great Lakes through 
Lake Erie, and to the Mississippi by Avay of the Ohio. 

Philadelphia, Erie, and Pittsburgh are ports of entry. 
Most of the foreign commerce centres at Philadelphia. 
The trade with the various ports of the Great Lakes ex- 
tends mainly from Erie. That of the Mississippi Valley 
and the Gulf States radiates from Pittsburgh. 

Tlie railways of the State have an aggregate mileage 
of 7,700 miles, built at a cost of over $500,000,000. 
The Pennsylvania system controls about seventy lines 
with termini at Pittsburgh, Chicago, Buffalo, New York, 
St. Louis and Washington. Through connections are 
made with Boston, Cincinnati, Louisville, Memphis, 
New Orleans, and other points in the South and West. 
The Philadelphia and Reading covers the State with a 
net- work of tracks, its mileage being a little less than 
that of the Pennsylvania. 

The Baltimore and Ohio is a trunk line between New 
York, Cincinnati, St. Louis and Chicago. The Lehigh 
Valley is operated as a trunk line between Philadelphia 
.-(and New York) and Buffalo. The Pennsylvania con- 

(44) 



COMMERCE AN^D TRANSPORTATION. 45 

trols a number of leased lines which traverse the western 
part of the State, connecting Pittsburgh with the ports 
of the Great Lakes. 

The canals have been largely supplanted by the rail- 
way, but nearly 900 miles of canal are still kept open. 
The Pennsylvania canal which follows the course of 
the Susquehanna River and its branches is 358 miles 
long. It is used mainly for the transportation of coal 
and iron. The Delaware, Schuylkill and Lehigh Eivers 
are also flanked by canals. The Delaware and Hudson 
Canal connects the two rivers of the same names at 
Honesdale, and at Kingston, N. Y. 

Long lines of pipe for the delivery of petroleum form 
one of the interesting features of commerce. These 
pipe lines radiating from the oil region, reach to Buf- 
falo, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and New York. The oil 
is pumped into the distributing reservoirs and flows to 
the receiving tanks in the cities named. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— It will be a pood plan to dwell on the enormous devel- 
opment of railways in the United States. In 1890, they had an apgrefrat© 
mileage of about 170,000 miles, nearly equal to that of all the rest of the world 
together. Develop the fact that the railway has almost entirely superseded 
the stage coach, the canal boat and the river-steamer. Impress the fact that 
although railv/ay transportation costs more than carriage by steamer, or 
barge, it is also a much quicker method, but that is less expensive than car- 
riage by the ox-teams of half a century ago. Explain what is meant by the 
Inter-State Commerce Law, pools, long haul, short haul, etc. Explain also the 
manner in which freight is classified and the reasons for so doing. Instruct 
the pupils also with reference to the cost per mile of freight and of passage^ 
On most of the roads of Pennsylvania the passenger-rates are three cents per 
mile for one-way tickets, two and a half cents for excursion tickets, and two 
cents per mile for mileage books of 1,000 miles each. Freight rates vary 
much, and tickets to remote points are sometimes higher than to intermediate 
points where there is no competition. 

What is meant by foreign commerce? domestic commerce? 



46 GEOGRAPHY OF PEl^NSYLVANIA. 

Give a reason for the decline of the foreign commerce of the 
State. 

What is meant by pilotage and towage f 

What natural outlets by water has the State to the Atlantic 
Ocean? the Great Lakes? the Mississippi Valley? 

In what city does most of the foreign commerce center? the 
lake commerce? 

What are ports of entry? 

Name the ports of entry in Pennsylvania. 

Name the principal lines of railway in the State. 

Write the abreviations for each. 

What is meant by the termini {sing., terminus) of a railway? 

What is a trunk line? 

Can you name ten different kinds of cars used on a railway? 

What is a switch? a turn-table? a round-house? a gravity road? 
a side-track? 

What flag or light is used as a danger signal? 

What is meant by an automatic brake ? 

Name the principal termini of the -Pennsylvania Railway, the 
Philadelphia and Reading, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Lehigh 
Valley. 

By what lines can you go from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh? 
Pittsburgh to Buffalo? Philadelphia to Chicago? 

Name the railways that pass through the city or town in which 
you live. 

By what routes can you go to Philadelphia? Pittsburgh? Chi- 
cago? New York? Washington? Buffalo? 

Name the principal canals of the State. 

What canal connects Delaware and Hudson Rivers? 

For what kind of freightage are the canals mainly used? 

Where is the Pennsylvania canal ? 

How may canals be serviceable in checking exorbitant freight- 
rates by railway ? 

AVhat cities are connected with the oil-fields by pipe-lines? 



IX. 
GOVERNMENT. 

Pennsylvania is officially styled the Common wealth of 
Pennsylvania, and is represented in Congress by two 
Senators and twenty-eight Eepresentatives. The ad- 
ministration of the State government is vested in three 
departments, the Executive, the Legislative and the 
Judicial. 

The Executive Department is administered by the 
Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, and Secretary of Inter- 
nal Affairs, whose terms of office are four years; an 
Auditor-General elected for three years, and a State 
Treasurer elected for two years. The Governor appoints 
a Secretary of the Commonwealth and the Attorney- 
General to hold office during his pleasure, and the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction for a term of four 
years. 

The Legislative Department consists of a Senate of 
50, and a House of Representatives of 204 members. 
The Legislature convenes the first Tuesday of January 
of odd-numbered years. Senators are elected for four. 
Representatives for two years. 

The Judicial Department is vested in a Supreme 
Court, Courts of Common Pleas, and such lower and 
special courts as may be authorized. The Justices of the 
Supreme Court, seven in number, are elected each for a 
term of twenty-one years. Judges of the Court of Com- 
mon Pleas are chosen each for a term of ten years. 

(47) 



48 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLTAI^IA. 

Including tlie city and county of Philadelphia, which 
are co-extensive, the State is divided into 07 counties. 
Certain laws and regulations of the State are adminis- 
tered by county government. In some of the larger 
counties there are necessarily more ofl&cers than in the 
smaller counties. Nearly all the county officers are 
elected by the people for a term of three years. The 
County Superintendent of schools is elected by the 
School Directors. The following are the principal 
county officers : 

Sheriff, Prothonotary, 

Three Poor Directors, Recorder of Deeds, 

District Attorney, Clerk of Courts, 

Three Commissioners, Register of "Wills, 

Three Auditors, Coroner, 

Two Jury Commissioners, Treasurer. 

Township and borough government is administered 
by Justices of the Peace and Constables, who preserve 
order and punish minor offences. Assessors, Clerks, 
and Auditors manage financial matters. Supervisors of 
Highways regulate the building and repair of public 
roads. School Directors have charge of the schools of 
their respective School Districts, which generally con- 
sist of a borough or a toAvnship. 

There are two penitentiaries, one at Philadelphia, 
and the other at Allegheny City; and a reformatory for 
young criminals at Huntingdon. Reform schools for 
incorrigible youth have been established at Philadelphia 
and at Morganza, near Pittsburgh. Nearly every county 
has a poor-house, and a jail. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacheb.— No faithful instructor will fail to impress on the minds 
of the pupils that while citizenship has rights, it also has duties, which can- 
not be lightly laid aside. One of these duties— an imperative one— is to learn 
how the state is governed. No one not acquainted with the essential prin- 
dples of state government can claim to be an intelligent citizen. He 



GOVERIyrMENT. 49 

may be an educated and a law-abiding 7nan, but he is neither an intelligent 
nor a good citizen. He is not an intelligent citizen, because he is ignorant 
of his rights ; he is not a good citizen, because while the state protects his life 
and property, he has neglected to do those duties which the state imposes on 
him. Another duty is the exercise of the right to vote. A man who neglects 
to vote is undutif ul to the state and ungrateful to his neighbors. There are 
but few countries in the world in which the people have the privilege of 
determining how they shall be governed, and still fewer in which they have 
the right to govern themselves. It is well to bear in mind also that the public 
schools are not designed for the purpose of making farmers, mechanics, mer- 
chants, and professional men, but rather to instruct the youth of the state in 
those elements of learning which will make them honest, intelligent, and 
dutiful citizens. 

What is the official title of the State? 

By hov7 many Senators is it represented in Congress? by how 
many Representatives? 

In what manner, and for how long a term is a United States 
Senator elected? a representative to Congress? 

Kame one or more reasons for dividing the State government 
into three departments. 

What are the chief executive officers? Which is the highest in 
rank? Which executive officers are elected'? Which appointed? 

What is the difference between appointing and electing an 
officer? 

What arc the chief duties of the Governor? the Secretary of 
Internal Affairs? the Treasurer? the Superintendent of Public- 
Instruction? 

Who are at present holding these offices? 

What body confirms an appointed officer? 

What are the functions of the Legislative Department? 

Of how many members does the State Senate consist? the 
House of Representatives? 

For how long a term is each elected? 

How does an act proposed in the Legislature become a law? 

What is meant by vetoing a bill? What officer exercises this 
right? How can a vetoed bill become a law? 

What are the functions of the Judicial Department? 

What is the highest court in the State? Of how many justices 
is it composed? What is meant by the Supreme Convt'^ sitting 
in banc? 



50 GEOGKAPHY OF PENXSYLYAXIA. 

What other courts are authorized in the State ? Wliat is a Police 
Court? a Justice Court? 

By whom is a prisoner sentenced to loss of life or liberty? 

Can any person be deprived of life or liberty without trial? 

By whom is a prisoner declared innocent or guilty ? 

Into how many counties is tlie State divided? 

Name the counties surrounding the one in which you live. 

Which is the largest county in the State? tlie smallest? the 
central? 

Name the principal officers of a county. 

What are tlie duties of each? 

How is the County Superintendent of Schools elected? 

What are the principal officers of a township? 

What is tlie difference between a city and a town? 

What is the chief officer of a city called? 

What is the difference between a constable and a policeman? 

Under what circumstances may a man be arrested without a 
warrant? What is a warrant? 

What is a penitentiary? a jail? a hospital? a poor-house? an 
insane asylum ? 



X. 

EDUCATION. 

Education. — The first common school in what now 
constitutes the State of Pennsylvania was established in 
the Dutch settlement of New Netherlands, in 1657. 
The charter government authorized by William Penn 
encouraged the establishment of schools, and the con- 
stitution of 1790 provided a sj-stem of schools in which 
^instruction to the 2)oor should be free/ 

The system of schools founded on this last-named 
unwise provision was not successful, and in 1834 the 
schools were made free to all. During successive years 
the powers of school officers Avere enlarged, and provis- 
ions made for a superintendent of schools in each county. 
(Act of 1854). 

Since then the facilities for acquiring education hav© 
constantly increased. Twelve normal schools have been 
established for the training of teachers. Institutes are 
held yearly in each county, conducted by the best edu- 
cational talent that can be procured. These institutes, 
which are attended by an aggregate of 17,000 teachers, 
are not equalled by those in any other State in the Union. 

During the past ten years great encouragement has 
been given to industrial education and manual training, 
and there is a growing belief that the hand should bo 
taught to do what the mind conceives. Many schools for 
technical training have been already established, and 

(51.) 



52 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVAKIA. 

effort to incorporate such instruction as a fundamental 
principle of public instruction is daily gathering strength. 

Higher education has always been encouraged, and 
the large number of colleges bears evidence of its value. 
The University of Pennsylvania and Dickinson College 
at Carlisle are each more than one hundred years old. 
The doors of the latter are thrown open to women. 
Lafayette College at Easton is an old and noted insti- 
tution, and Lehigh University at Bethlehem is among 
the finest schools of technology on the continent. Penn- 
gylvania State College in Center County is partly sup- 
ported by the State, and gives free tuition in agriculture 
and the sciences. High schools are established in all 
the larger towns and boroughs, and many of them are 
famous for their excellence. But the country schools 
are the stronghold of the State, and these, with their 
graded courses of study are the true colleges in which 
the youth of the State receive their first lessons in citi- 
zenship. 

The various colleges of medicine, dentistry, and phar- 
macy stand among the foremost in the country. Of 
the various teclmical and art schools, the Boys' school 
of Manual Training, Girard College, the Woman's School 
of Design, and the Academy of the Fine Arts have a 
national reputation. The colleges of medicine and 
dentistry draw students from all parts of the world. 

The present system of education is a monument of 
honor to the founders of the Commonwealth. To 
Thaddeus Stevens, more than to any other one man, this 
honor is due, and tlie life that he infused into it has 
been kept up by such educators as Burrowes, Wickers- 
ham, and Higbee. 



EDUCATIOK. 53 

See list of Colleges in Part II. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— It is well to emphasize the enormous amount of money 
spent by the State for the education of the youth of the State— in the aver- 
age S'J',500,000 yearly. This sum however is about one-eiglith the amount 
spent for liquor during the same period. In the total expenditure for edu- 
cational purposes Pennsylvania is the fourth State in rank ; in the expendi- 
ture per capita, the 23d (Nevada is first, California second, and Massachusetts 
third). It is well to appreciate the fact that this expenditure is designed to 
promote that kind of development which produces patriotism, strength of 
character, and usefulness to the community. The world does not care how 
much a man knows ; it values him only for what he can do. Intellectual cul- 
ture is an excellent acquisition, but unless it is of a kind which develops 
force of character and ability to do, it is a source of weakness and unhappi- 
ness rather than of strength. That man is the best educated who is the most 
useful to his fellow men. 

When was the first school of which there is any record estab- 
lished in Pennsylvania territory? 

What were William Penn's ideas of the importance of schools? 

What is said of the 'poor-schools' established in 1790? 

Why w^ould such a system of schools naturally result in failure? 

Why ought they to fail? Atis. — If for no other reason, for the 
fact that such schools would necessarily create a class distinction 
founded on the possession of wealth. Such a spirit is totally in- 
compatible with the true idea ot a republican government. The 
only distinction permissable in a school should be founded on in- 
tegrity of character, perseverance and faithfulness to duty. 

When was the present school-system established ? 

What are the duties of a county superintendent of schools? 

How is he elected ? 

What are some of the powers and duties of school trustees? 

How are they elected? 

What are the duties of a teacher? What legal qualifications 
must the teacher have? 

What are the duties of each pupil? 

What are normal schools? What normal school is nearest to 
the place where you live? 

In what college is the tuition free in agriculture and scientific 
studies? 



54 GEOGRAPHY OP PENXSTLYAXIA. 

Name some of the prominent colleges and universities in the 
State. 

"What is meant by ' manual training ' in schools? 

What is a kindergarten ? 

What is a medical college? a college of pharmacy? a college of 
dentistry? 

How are the schools of the State supported? 

Can women hold educational offices in the State? 



XI. 
HISTORY. 

Long before the settlement of v.iiat now constitutes 
the State of Pennsylvania, an Indian tribe known as 
the Delawares controlled the eastern slope of the State, 
and a powerful confederacy of Indians called the Six 
Nations controlled a vast area west of the mountain 
belt. 

As early as 1623 the Dutch West India Company 
obtained a foothold along Delaware Eiver, claiming the 
land on both sides of the stream. Settlements were 
made, however, on the east side only. In 1643, Minuit, 
at one time an officer in the company, but afterwards 
in the employ of the Swedish government, took posses- 
sion of the land on the luest bank of the river. 

Minuit claimed all the land along the west bank of 
the river from Cape Henlopen to the site of Trenton. 
He built a fort at Wilmington, Delaware. After Minuit's 
death, a few years following, another fort was built on 
Tinicum Island, and two years later, in 1645, a perman- 
ent settlement was made at Upland, now adjoining 
the city of Chester. 

In 1655, Peter Stuyvesant, the Governor of the Dutch 
possessions in America, appeared on the scene with seven 
vessels and six hundred soldiers. His demand for the 
surrender of the territory was immediately complied 
with. The victorv was a bloodless one and the people 

(55) 



56 GEOGKAPHY OF PENi^SYLVAKIA. 

were left in peaceful possession of tlieir homes and 
property. 

In 1664 during tlie war between England and the 
Netherlands, an English fleet under the Duke of York 
sailed up Delaware Iviver, and with hardly a show of 
resistance, all the Dutch possessions passed into the 
hands of the English. In 1681, a large part of the 
tract of land involved was given by Charles II. of Eng- 
land to AVilliam, a son of Admiral Penn, in payment of 
a debt of £16,000 owed to the latter. The grant of 
land extended from the Delaware five degrees westward. 

Penn belonged to a religious sect known as the Society 
of Friends, or ' Quakers.' lie had suffered much from 
religious persecution, and looked to America as a place 
where he and his followers could live in peace. Cross- 
ing the ocean in the ship Welcome, he selected a tract 
of land near the junction of the Schuylkill and Delaware 
Elvers as the site for his colony. He called a confer- 
ence of the Indian chiefs, whom he also paid for the 
land, and thus was begun the city of Philadelphia. 

According to tradition, Penn's treaty was made on a 
spot near the village of Kensington, now included in the 
limits of Philadelphia. An old elm-tree which formerly 
marked the sight of the spot has since been replaced by 
an unj3retentious monument. There was not a scrap of 
paper nor a line of writing to witness this treaty, but 
nothwithstanding it was faithfully kept for more than 
fifty years. 

The frame of Penn's government was wisely drj,wn 
and the colonly grew rapidly by the addition of emi- 
grants from England, Scotland, Germauy, Ireland, 
li'rance, and Wales. In twenty years the colony num- 



HISTORY. 57 

bered more than 70,000 souls. The heterogeneous mix- 
ture of people, differing greatly in customs, religion and 
political belief, was not conducive to peace, and as a 
result there was much wrangling during the century 
following. 

The French and Indian wars were the serious troubles 
during the colonial period. These wars were marked 
by Braddock's defeat near Pittsburgh, and the caj)ture 
of Fort Du Quesne. It was during these scenes that 
George Washington first achieved distinction. 

In the final struggle of the American colonies for 
independence Pennsylvania bears an enviable record. 
The historical session of Congress during which inde- 
pendence was declared convened in Philadelphia. The 
battles of Brandywine and Germantown, the capture of 
Philadelphia and Fort Mifflin, all took place on Penn- 
sylvania soil. There is scarcely a spot in Philadelphia, 
Montgomery and Delaware Counties that has not a his- 
torical connection with the War of the Revolution. 

During the past century, as a part of the great repub- 
lic, the State has won a leading j^lace, and its one hun- 
dred years of existence have been a history of unparalleled 

prosperity. 

QUESTIONS. 

To THE Teacher.— The main facts of the general history of the State are 
easily accessible, but the local history of the town and the county is rarely- 
found in any published work. The author earnestly recommends that the 
compilation of local history be made a point of the regular school work. 
Every pupil can obtain interesting and important facts of history which as 
yet are unwritten. Much of the material of Bancroft's History of the Pacific 
Coast was compiled by the pupils of the public schools of California, Nevada 
and Oregon. Indeed the most accurate history of California during the 
^old-mining excitement was compiled by the children of California. It is an 
Interesting study, also, to learn the characteristics of the various people who 
have made up the population of the State, especially the Indians, the Friends 
or ' Quakers,' and the Germans. Note the fact that the people commonly 
called Pennsylvania Dutch are not from the Netherlands, but from Germany. 



58 GEOGRAPHY OF PENIJ-SYLVANIA. 

It is well to impress the fact that while the Dutch and the Swedes cam© to 
tills country mainly to trade with the Indians, the English came for the pur- 
pose of making homes. This was an element of strength which gave them 
no little superiority in the final struggle for the possession of the country. 

Who controlled the territory now included in the State before 
the advent of the white man? 

Who were the Five Nations? Ans.— The Mohawks, Oneidas, 
Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. These were also known as 
the Algonquins, and as the Iroquois Confederacy. They were 
afterwards joined by the Tuscaroras, and were then known as the 
Six Nations. 

What was the territory claimed by the Dutch East India Com- 
pany? On which bank of the Delaware River were their settle- 
ments made? 

What was the teritory occupied by the Swedes? 

What settlements were made by Minuit? 

Where is Tiuicum Island? Uplandt? 

Who was Peter Stuyvesant? 

Describe the capture of the Swedish settlements. What caused 
the final transfer of this territory to the English? How came it to 
be deeded to William Penn? 

Can you tell any of the characteristics of the Friends? How 
came they to be called Quakers? 

What was Penn's conduct towards the Indians? 

What parts of Pennsylvania were battle grounds during the 
French and Indian w^ar? 

Can you describe any of the circumstances concerning Brad- 
dock's defeat? What officer of the colonial troops who took part 
in this battle afterwards became distinguished? Where was Fort 
Du Quesne ? 

Name some of the battles of the Revolutionary war which took 
place in Pennsylvania. 

Where is Brandy wine Creek? Germantown? Fort Mifflua? Val- 
ley Forge? 

Whereabouts on the Delaware River did Washington make a 
crossing at the time of the capture of Trenton, N. J.? 

What famous battle of the civil war occurred in Pennsylvania? 

Wliat two centennial celebrations have taken place in Penn- 
sylvania? What did each commemorate? 



XII. 
CITIES AND TOWNS. 

Note.— The questions and other exercises on cities and towns are better 
left to the judgment of the teacher. The geography of other centres of set- 
tlement should be largely interwoven with the geography of the city or town 
in which the pupil lives, at the same time treating each important town or 
city as a centre of the particular industry which has given it life. Each 
pupil should be required to make a map of the county in which he lives, and 
the teachershould see that the topography, drainage and transportation lines 
are reasonably correct. The geography of the county should be studied from 
these maps while the pupils are making them. 

In 1880 there were seventeen cities, boroughs and 
towns with a population of 10,000 and over. At the 
beginning of 1890 twenty-five cities and towns were 
estimated to contain at least this number of people. 

The Easterjt Section. 

Philadelphia, the metropolis of the eastern part of 
the State, is situated on Delaware River, and the densely 
settled part lies mainly between this river and the 
Schuylkill. It covers an area of 129 square miles, and 
in extent of territory exceeds every other city in America 
or Europe, except Ncav Orleans. During the past one 
hundred years its limits have been gradually extended 
until it now embraces the villages of Frankford, Ken- 
sington, Mantua, Southwark, Richmond, Germantown,. 
Chestnut Hill, Torresdale, Ilolmesburg, Bridesburg, 
Manayunk, and a number of small villages. 

In population it stands third in the United States, 
exceeded only by Chicago and New York. In the 
value of its manufactures and the -extent of its com- 
(59) 



60 GEOGRAPHY OF PEXNSYLVAXIA. 

merce and manufactures it is among the foremost cities 
of the continent. Its establishments for the manufac- 
ture of iron and steel and textile goods are among the 
largest in the world. The Baldwin Locomotive Works 
turn out an average of more than three locomotives a 
working day, making in 1889 one thousand locomotives. 
The ship-yards of Cramp & Sons are the largest in the 
world, those of the River Clyde excepted. Most of the 
iron vessels of the United States Xavy are built at these 
yards. 

The woolen and worsted goods made in this city are 
distributed in every State and territory in the Union. 
The surgical, dental and optical goods are not surpassed 
by those of any other country. It is the largest coal 
market in the United States, and contains tlie largest 
retail stores in the world. The sugar refineries alone 
produce sugar to the amount of $25,000,000 a year, and 
the total value of the manufactured products is upwards 
of $500,000,000 yearly. 

In no other city in the United States does the labor- 
ing man fare so well as in Philadelphia. There is 
scarcely a tenement house in the whole city; there are 
thousands of small houses equipped with all the con- 
veniences which sanitary science can provide, which 
may be rented for a sum within the reach of the poorest- 
paid laborer. Added to these advantages is Fairmount 
Park, also a conservator of public health and morals. 
The park is traversed by Schuylkill River and Wis- 
sahickon Creek, and more than sixty miles of carringe- 
roads and foot-paths wind about the more picturesque 
parts. 



CITIES A]S"D TOWN'S. 61 

In 1887 the commerce of the city amounted to a total 
of about $70,000,000. Up to 1830 Philadelphia was 
the foremost commercial port in the United States. 
Since that time the commercial interests have steadily 
declined. 

There are steamship lines to Liverpool, Glasgow, 
New York, Boston, Savannah and Charleston. Three 
trunk lines of railway, the Pennsylvania, the Philadel- 
phia & Reading and the Baltimore & Ohio pass through 
the city. About fifteen local railways center in the city. 

The business part of the city is noted for its massive 
buildings and fine architecture. The new City Hall 
with its court-yard covers four and one-half acres. Its 
tower when completed will reach a height of 537 feet, 
exceeding that of any other building on the continent 
except Washington monument. The residences on 
North Broad street are not surpassed by those in any 
other city in the United States. Among other notable 
public buildings are the Post-office, the Custom House, 
and the United States Mint. 

Philadelphia is also rich in historical buildings. The 
old Swedes church on Swanson street was dedicated in 
1700. Christ church on Second street was the place of 
worship attended by Washington and Franklin. Car- 
penter's Hall, back of Chestnut street, is the building 
where the first Congress met. The old State House or 
Independence Hall was the scene of nearly all the 
important civil events of the war of the Revolution. 
Penn's house, formerly on Letitia street, is now in Fair- 
mount Park. 

The public schools of the city embrace every grade 
of instruction from the kindergarten to the high schooL 



62 GEOGKAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

There is a Normal school for girls, a school of manual 
training for boys, and special institutions for the instruc- 
tion of deaf mutes and blind. About 2,200 teachers 
are employed in the various public schools, and the 
latter are supported at a cost of 11,500,000. 

Eeadiiig, the county seat of Berks County, is one of 
the oldest cities in the State, having been founded by 
the sons of William Penn. During its early history it 
received a large number of German people, and their 
descendents form the greater part of the present popula- 
tion. Throughout Berks, Lancaster, and parts of 
Bucks, Montgomery, Lebanoi^, Dauphin and York 
Counties a dialect of the German language, and many 
of the old-country customs still obtain. The region 
surrounding is noted for its beautiful scenery, its fer- 
tility and it's wealth of iron ore. There are more than 
400 manufacturing establishments, and the yearly value 
of their out-put is upwards of $20,000,000. 

Harrisbnr^, the county seat of Dauphin County, is 
the capital of the State. Several lines of railway center 
in the city, and there are many extensive manufactur- 
ing establishments, including rolling-mills, steel works 
and car-shops. The city is built on the east bank of 
Susquehanna Eiver and is situated in a fertile agricul' 
tural region. 

Lebanon, about twenty miles distant, is near the 
Cornwall iron mines. 

Lancaster, the county seat of Lancaster County, 
is situated in the heart of the finest agricultural region 
of the State. It is surrounded by some of the largest 
tobacco farms in the Union, and the handling and 



CITIES AND TOWNS. 63 

marketing of tobacco is an important industry of the 
city. Tliere are also large cotton-manufacturing estab- 
lishments. Lancaster is one of the oldest cities and at 
one time was one of the largest inland cities in the 
United States. From 1799 to 1812, it was the capital 
of the State. Continental Congress also met in session 
here after the battle of the Brandy wine. Ex-President 
Buchanan and Thaddeas Stevens are both buried here. 
The first established State Normal school v/as founded at 
Millersville. 

York, a borough, and the county seat of York County 
is the centre of a rich agricultural district from which 
several railways radiate. Like Lancaster it is noted as 
being the place where Continental Congress met while 
Philadelphia was held by the British. The town supports 
several large establishments for the manufacture of 
farming tools. 

Chester, the largest town in Delaware County, is the 
oldest settlement in the State. Some of the largest iron 
ships made in the United States were built at the John 
Roach ship-yards in this city. There are also manu- 
factures of cotton and woolen goods. 

NorristOWQ, the county seat of Montgomery County, 
is one of the finest residential cities in the State. 
Among its industries are iron-works, glass-furnaces, and 
cotton and woolen mills. It is one of the oldest towns 
in the State, being founded in 1748. 

Pottstown, in the same county, contains extensive 
iron-reducing establishments. 

West Chester, the county seat of Chester County, 
is noted for its beautiful situation and fine residences. 



64 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

It is the seat of the West Chester Normal School and 
other educational institutions, and has long been famous 
for its schools and the culture of its citizens. 

Phoenix vi He, a busy manufacturing town in the 
same county, contains extensive iron works. 

Carlisle, the county seat of Cumberland County, con- 
tains a large Indian school. It is also the seat of Dick- 
inson College. 

Oel tysburg is noted for its mineral springs. It is 
the site of a historic battle-field of the civil war. 

Allentown, the county seat of Lehigh County, is a 
receiving depot for the coal and iron ore which is to be 
fient to New York. Several lines of railway and the 
Lehigh Valley canal pass through the city. The prin- 
cipal industries are connected with the smelting of iron, 
and the handling of iron and coal. Muhlenberg College 
and Allentown Female College arc situated here. 

Bethlehem and South Bethlehem are the centre of 
a settlement established by the Moravians in 1741. The 
former is a borough of Northampton County. South 
Bethlehem is noted for the iron and steel works in whi^h 
heavy ordnance for the United States war and navy 
departments is to be made. One of the largest zinc- 
reducing establishments in the country is located here. 
It is the seat of Lehigh University, a well endowed and 
successful institution. 

Easton, the county seat of Northampton County, is 
situated in the heart of a rich agricultural region. 
Several bridges across the Delaware River connect the 
city with Phillipsburg, N. J. Easton w^as the scene of sev- 
eral treaties between the English and the Six Nations. 
Lafayette College, one of the best known institutions in 



CITIES A^-D TOWKS. 65 

the Eastern States, is located here. Tlie schools of the 
city rank among the best in the State. 

Allentown, Bethlehem, and Easton are the principal 
centres of industry in the Lehigh Valley. Aside from 
the extent of their coal, iron and other mineral wealth, 
they are situated in a rich agricultural region. 

The Mountain Belt. 

Scranton, the county seat of Lackawanna County, 
is in the heart of the upper, or Wyoming anthracite 
coal-basin. Seven railways pass through or else termi- 
nate in the city. There are several rolling mills for the 
manufacture of steel rails, which are among the largest 
establishments of the kind in the United States. The 
electric street railways vrhich radiate from the central 
part of the city are the most extensive of the kind in 
the world. Scranton was founded in 1840, and is the 
youngest and one of the most progressive towns in the 
State. It is noted for its excellent public schools. A 
State institute for educating the deaf by lip-reading is 
about to be established here. 

Towanda, the county seat of Bradford County, is a 
handsome borough on North Branch. It is in the centre 
of a productive farming region, and contains manufac- 
tures of furniture and farming tools. 

Wilkesbarre, the county seat of Luzerne County^ 
is one of the oldest settlements of the State. It is situ- 
ated in the Wyoming Valley, a beautiful spot made 
famous by Longfellow. It is in the heart of a rich coal 
region and is the centre of several lines of railway. 

Pittston, Ashley. Plymouth and Nantieoke, also 
in the upper coal-basin, are the centres of extensive 
mining operations. 



66 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

Potts Yille, the county seat of Schuylkill County, is 
in the heart of the southern coal-basin. The celebrated 
sixty-foot vein is near the city. 

Mauch Chunk, the county seat of Carbon County, is 
an important market for the shipment of coal. It is 
noted for its beautiful scenery and is called the Switzer- 
land of America. 

Taina(3[ua is also an important coal mining center. 

Mahanoy City, Shenandoah, Hazelfon and Sha- 
mokin are important mining centres of the middle 
basin. The out-put of the collieries in this belt is 
upwards of 5,000,000 tons annually. 

Williamsport, the county seat of Lycoming County, 
is the principal lumber market in the State. Several 
railways and a canal form a commercial outlet for the 
industries of the town. The manufacturing establish- 
ments include about thirty saw-mills. The Susque- 
hanna log-boom for holding the lumber floated down the 
river, cost upwards of $1,000,000. 

Lock Hayen, the county seat of Clinton County is 
also a large lumber-market. 

Altoona, Blair County, is at the foot of the eastern 
slope of the Alleghany mountains. Its importance is 
mainly due to the extensive car-shops of the Pennsyl- 
vania Eailway. 

Johnstown, Cambria County, is the central of a num- 
ber of towns whose industries are connected with iron 
mining and smelting. The rolling-mill at this place 
employs 7,000 men, and is the largest in the world. It 
is noted for the great disaster of 1889, caused by a great 



CITIES AND TOWNS. 67 

^orm and the breaking of a dam of a reservoir in the 
mountains, by which the city was almost destroyed and 
2,000 lives were lost. 

The Western Plateau. 

Pittsburgh and Allegheny City form the commer- 
cial and manufacturing metropolis of the western part 
of the State. The two cities are on opposite sides of 
the Ohio Eiver, but practically form a single business 
centre with common interests. 

The two cities are situated in the heart of the bitu- 
minous coal and iron fields and are surrounded by a 
productive agricultural region. To these natural re- 
sources natural gas has recently been added, thus giving 
them advantages possessed by no other cities in the 
east. A locomotive every two days, a steel rail every 
minute, and a lamp-chimney every second are among 
the products of manufacture. About forty rolling-mills, 
twenty steel-mills, and 8,000 coke-ovens are also wit- 
nesses to the enterprises of Western Pennsylvania. One- 
fifth of the iron manufactured in the country is made 
in and near Pittsburgh. 

The amount of freight handled at Pittsburgh and 
Allegheny is exceeded in but few cities. Aside from 
the vast amount of railway traffic, more than three 
thousand steamboats and barges are required to trans- 
port the freight that goes down the Ohio River. With 
the improvements recently made in the navigation of 
this river and system of towing in barges, freight has 
been profitably transported at a rate of five cents per 
ton for every hundred miles. 



68 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVAiq^IA. 

Both cities are well provided with schools for common 
and higher education. The Western University of 
Pennsylvania and Pittsburgh Female College are located 
at Pittsburgh; Allegheny Observatory at Allegheny 
City. 

McKeesport, a borough of Allegheny County, is an 
important depot for the shipment of coal and iron. It 
contains iron and steel works, and its industries are 
identical with those of Pittsburgh. 

Titusville, Crawford County, is the principal city 
in the oil region. It is the seat of numerous oil-refin- 
eries, and the various industries connected with oil- 
production. 

Meadville, in the same county, is in the centre of 
rich oil-fields, and is the seat of Allegheny College. 

Bradford, McKean County, is lighted and heated 
by natural gas. Its interests are connected with the 
production and shipment of oil. Franklin and Oil 
City, Venaugo County, Warren, Warren County, and 
CoRRY, Erie County, are all centres of the same industry. 

Erie, the county seat of Erie County, is the only 
important lake-port in Pennsylvania. The city is situ- 
ated on a bluff overlooking Presque Isle Bay. The 
bay, which is formed by the long curved spit known as 
Presque Isle, is the finest natural harbor on the Great 
Lakes. There are extensive manufacturing establish- 
ments in the city, among which is one of the largest 
boiler-making shops in the country. There are also 
extensive car-building shops, and manufactures of iron, 
brass, and wood-ware. The schools of the city are noted 



CITIES AND TOWNS. 69 

for their excellence. In the harhor of this city Com- 
modore Perry built the fleet with which he achieved his 
famous victory. 

NOTES. 

Philadelphia makes more carpets than any other city in the 
world. 

The supply of natural gas in Pittsburgh has so decreased that 
the consumption of coal is again becoming general. 



PART II. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The surface of Pennsylvania is not a level plain like 
that of the Mississippi Valley. Mountain-ranges trav- 
erse the State north-east to south-west. Eivers have 
worn deep channels in the rock, and everywhere there 
is a succession of hills and valleys, forests and fields, 
rivers and caflons. 

The hand of man has been busy boring into the 
mountain-sides to get the enormous wealth of coal and 
iron; building cities and towns where are manufactured 
an endless variety of articles demanded by civilization; 
building railways, cars and locomotives to carry these 
articles to every part of our country; and building ships 
of iron and steel to carry the products of industry to 
other and distant lands. We shall scarcely find another 
State in which nature has done so much for man, and 
where man has done so much for himself. 

Let us study some of the natural features of the State, 
— the mountains, the rivers, the valleys and caflons, the 
coal and the iron mines. We shall find that they have 
done much to shape and develop man's work, and to 
these is owed almost everything that has made Pennsyl- 
vania one of the richest parts of the world. 

MOUNTAIKS. 

Mountain-ranges are immense folds or wrinkles in the 
earth's crust. Sometimes there is onlv a single wrinkle, 

(70) 



MOUNTAINS. 71 

but ofteiier many sucli folds are ranged side by side. 
Usually the various folds are nearly parallel, forming 
a belt that extends many miles in length. 

Sometimes, however, instead of a series of long, reg- 
ular folds, there is an irregular cluster or group of 
highlands in which short ridges have been thrust 
together almost as one would crumple paper with the 
hand. The Alps, the Adirondack and the White 
Mountains are good examples of this kind of formation. 

The single fold of the earth's crust is commonly 
called a mountain-ra7ige, and the various ranges which 
compose a great mass form a mountain- system. The 
top of a ridge or range is its crest. A part of the crest 
which rises above the average height is called Q>peah. 
Isolated mountain peaks rising from a level plain are of 
very rare occurrence, and are always volcanic in origin. 

It is now generally thought that mountains were 
formed by the shrinking of the earth's crust over a cool- 
ing interior. As the interior of the earth parted with 
its heat, it contracted or became smaller in bulk. As a 
result the outer parts, in shrinking over the contracting 
mass became wrinkled and crimpled, just in fact as the 
skin of an apple shrivels and folds when the pulp con- 
tracts, because of its loss of bulk. 

It has required many ages for the formation of moun- 
tain folds, and it is more than likely that the crumpling 
process is still going on in even the oldest mountain- 
systems. "We can best understand how slowly the 
process of mountain-formation has gone on when we 
learn how the Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill, Susque- 
hanna and Swatara Rivers have cut their channels 
through the Blue Mountains. 



72 GEOGRAPHY OF PENKSYLVANIA. 

These streams flowed in much the same place they do 
now long before the Appalachian highlands existed. 
When the uplift of the mountain-fold began, it pro- 
gressed so slowly that the river cut away the rock just 
as rapidly as it was raised above the level of the river 
bed. Finally when the mountain-folds had been com- 
pleted, the rivers flowed in deep, self-worn cafions— the 
water-gaps of the present age. 

All during the time when the mountain-folds were 
rising above the surro.unding level, the elements were at 
work wearing away their crests and sides. Frost and 
ice were at work splitting off the surface of the moun- 
tains, and running water carried the silt to the plains 
below, and then to the sea. Thus while one force was 
uplifting mountain-chains, another was at work wear- 
ing them away. 

Some of the ranges of the Appalachian system would 
have been at least eight or ten miles high, had it not 
been for their rapid wearing away under the erasive. 
action of ice and running water. So that what now 
remains of these gigantic folds are only a few weather- 
worn ridges averaging scarcely half a mile in height. 

ElVEES. 

The water which falls on the land as rain and snow 
would, if evenly distributed, cover its surface with a 
depth of more than three feet yearly. Some of this 
sinks into the ground to reappear as springs; some is 
carried off in the form of vapor; and some gathering 
into channels flows back to the ocean, whence it came. 

The beginnings of most streams are high on the high 
mountain-slopes where the rain-fall is heaviest and 



RIVERS. 73 

where snow lies on the ground perhaps all the year 
round. Here, too, springs are most numerous, and here 
the uneven surface forms so many of the natural chan- 
nels into which the water may collect. 

Let loose from some winter's drift of snow, or trick- 
ling from a spring, the water collects in rills and rivu- 
lets and tumbles down the mountain side through 
pebbled gullies, or plunges over steep clifts in silver- 
streaked cascades, cutting its way deep into the hardest 
rock, or tossing aside- obstacles that can be moved by its 
flood. 

When it reaches the lowlands its behavior is wholly 
changed. It then drops all but the highest sediment or 
silt and flows with a quieter current. Other mountain 
torrents have swelled its volume, and their combined 
flood pours onward to the sea. 

During times of drought the river flows usually with 
a clear current, but with the breaking up of winter and 
during seasons of excessive rains, the water is filled with 
silt. Double the velocity of the current and the river 
will carry sixty-four times as much silt; decrease the 
velocity and the water will drop silt in like proportion. 

In this manner the river brings down a vast amount 
of pulverized rock from the mountain-slopes. Here its 
current is so swift that it scours off the flanks of the 
mountains rapidly. All these scourings are spread out 
over the lowlands, and in this way the deep canon between 
mountain-ranges is filled up, making a fertile valley. 

In this valley as the slope decreases little by little, the 
current becomes slower and slower. Because it becomes 
slower the water must drop some of its silt, and because 
it cannot carry the silt it must thereafter flow around it. 



74 GEOGRAPHY OF PEJs^J^SYLYAJS'IA. 

It therefore spreads out in sinuous loops and sweeping- 
curves. 

This goes on until the river has built its banks and 
bed higher than the surrounding land. By and by, 
during a season of floods the velocity of the current is 
increased. Then the river breaks through its banks and 
makes its channel in a new place and on lower land. 

In this way the valley is filled up and leveled o2. 
During past ages, the Mississippi Eiver must have 
flowed in all parts of the lower valley which bears its 
name, building its bed and banks higher than the land 
on either side, and then cutting through them. All 
along the valleys of the Schuylkill, Susquehanna and 
Delaware Eivers, except when the}^ flow through the 
water-gaps, one may every where see how step by step 
the process of valley-making has been carried on. 

When the river reaches the ocean it flows either 
through a delta that has been pushed out far into the 
sea; or else it flows into a V-shaped estuary that extends 
many miles into the land. Evidently these conditions 
are exact opposites. Let us see how these wide extremes 
are caused. 

Eivers like the Mississippi, the Po, and the Nile all 
flow into seas in which there is but a slight rise and fall 
of the tide. So when their waters reach the sea the 
current is checked and all the remaining silt is dropped. 
There being no strong tidal currents to carry it away, it 
is spread out little by little until it covers an area extend- 
ing a hundred miles or more into the sea. 

On the other hand rivers like the Delaware and Sus- 
quehanna reach a coast that faces unusually strong 
tide-waves. The tide rushes up their lower, V-shaped 



RIVERS. 'J'5 

channels in strong, vigorous waves whose current back 
and forth is greater than that of the river itself. As a 
result, an estuary is formed, which, constantly flushed by 
the strong current of the tide-waves, grows wider and 
deeper. 

There is another feature of rivers so general that it 
may properly be called one of the laws of river-hydrog- 
raphy. We naturally assume that a river lengthens its 
course either by increasing the number and the ampli- 
tude of its loops; or, if it flows into the sea at some point 
which does not face the tide-waves, by extending its 
delta into the ocean. These assumptions are true; we 
may notice the operations of the first law in all rivers 
which flow through alluvial plains; and of the second 
in such rivers as the Nile, Mississippi, Ganges, Po, and 
Rhone. The Po, for instance, in the last thousand 
years, has extended its delta seaward for more than 
twenty miles, and the Mississippi, in very recent geolog- 
ical times, has built its delta fifty miles or more into 
the present area of the Gulf of Mexico. — But it is seldom 
we consider the fact that, while a river is building its 
bed and banks out into the sea, it is excavating its 
sources backwards in order to get the material wherewith 
to extend its delta. 

The recession of the sources of a river is a feature 
nowhere better illustrated than in Pennsylvania. The 
various streams which form the head-waters of the 
Susquehanna and the Schuylkill are rapidly cutting 
their sources backwards, and the area of their basins is 
constantly changing. The changes of area are slight 
for each successive year, it is true, but they need only 
the factor of time to make them great. A stream of 



^6 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

water flowing on the slope of a low ridge, in the course 
of years carves its channel across the ridge. It then 
taps the waters of the stream flowing on the opposite 
side of the ridge and finally absorbs them. The stream 
on the opposite side may have crossed the ridge at some 
point lower down, but its waters having been absorbed 
by the more rapidly corroding stream, a dry bed is left 
to mark its former course. It is in this manner that 
the curious 'wind-gaps' have been made, but from the 
foregoing description it will be seen that the wind-gaps 
are nothing but older water-gaps. 

Prof. W. M. Davis has desciibed one case of this 
which possesses more than ordinary interest. The 
channels. Deer Eun and Perkiomen Creek, are on oppo- 
site sides of a divide. At its sources the former has a 
fall of about sixty feet to the mile, while the latter flows 
npon a slope hardly more than one-half as steep. As a 
result the channel of Deer Run has carved its way back- 
wards, and has robbed Perkiomen Creek of three or four 
of the tributaries formerly flowing into the latter. In 
the maps of the region involved (Montgomery, Lehigh 
and Bucks Counties), perhaps the most noticeable thing 
about the drainage basin of Deer Run, is the back-hand 
manner in which its upper tributaries flow into the 
main stream. 

Lakes. 

Lakes are the most ephemeral features that diversify 
the land. The stream that flows into a lake is con- 
stantly filling up its bed with sediment; the river that 
flows out of it is all the time cutting away the rim of its 
basin and thereby draining off its waters. 



LAKES. 77 

Lakes are bodies of water in depressions of the earth's 
surface. The hollow or depression is called the lake- 
basin. The divide or ridge which forms the highest 
part of the lake-basin is called its rim. Within the 
rim the land on all sides slopes towards the lake. 

There are many depressions in the surface of the land 
in which there are no lakes. If more water collects in 
the basin than evaporates from it, a lake or pond will 
result. If, however, the water evaporates as fast as it 
collects, no permanent lake can be formed. 

As the water gathers in the basin, its level rises higher 
and higher until, at length, it flows over the lowest edge 
of the rim, or else it reaches a level where just as much 
water evaporates as flows into the basin. In the former 
case the waters of the lake always remain fresh and 
sweet; in the latter they are apt to become salt. Let 
us see why. 

When running water flows over soil and rocks that 
contain salt or other soluble minerals, the water dis- 
solves part of it and carries it to the lake. If the latter 
has an outlet both the water and the salt flow out. If 
on the contrary the lake has no outlet the water evapo- 
rates while salt accumulates in the basin, until by and 
by the water is a strong brine. 

There are many lakes, however, whose waters remain 
fresh, even though the lakes have no outlet. The reason 
is that the soil over which their inlets flow contains no 
soluble mineral matter that the water can reach. There 
are many thousand such lakes in the northern part of 
the United States and Canada. 

There are many ways in which lake basins have been 
formed. In some instances they were formed when the 



"78 GEOGRAPHY OF PEiq^NSYLVANIA. 

upheaval of land-masses took place; some have been 
made by sand-bars, which, forming across a narrow bay 
have shut off a part of the sea. 

But most of the small lake basins are thought to have 
been scoured out by the immense sheets of glacial ice 
which once covered much of the northern hemisphere. 
It is thought that most of the lakes of Pennsylvania 
were formed in this manner. 

Look at any good map of the Dominion of Canada, 
and the great multitude of small lakes is the most notice- 
able feature on the map. Notice too that most of them 
are grouped in chains and that a river flows through 
each chain. All these lake basins received their final 
shaping from the ice-sheet that once covered the north- 
ern joart of the American continent. 
Glaciers. 

Glaciers are streams or sheets of ice moving slowly 
down a ravine or a sloping surface. They are not 
improperly called rivers of ice. 

The snow that falls upon the flanks and crests of 
mountain-heights is removed in various ways. Much of 
it melts under the sun.mer's heat; a small amount evap- 
orates; but a large part tumbles down the sharp slopes 
in the form of avalanches, or else is gathered into ravines 
by the fierce blasts of winds that whistle among the 
crags and peaks. 

Let us ascend the mountain-side until we reach the 
head of one of these ravines. Here an abundance of 
snow has gathered, and it is almost as light and fleecy 
as when it fell. A little way down, the flaky snow gives 
place to the granular snow which we always see at the 
breaking up of winter. 



GLACIERS. 79 

This granular snow, or neve, is composed of minute 
rounded grains of ice. A little farther down and 
the snow disappears. It has been compacted by pres- 
sure into ice — just, in fact, as we make balls of fine, 
light snow and squeeze them between the hands until 
they are balls of solid ice. At first the ice is white and 
full of air bubbles, but soon the enormous pressure 
squeezes the air out, and the ice then becomes deep blue 
in color. 

Examine this body of ice and we shall find it is in 
motion. Its flow is very slow — not more than twenty 
or thirty inches a day, but otherwise its current is much 
like that of a river — most rapid in the middle of the 
channel and slowest at the sides. At first the ice is 
tolerably smooth, but further down the ravine it is 
seamed with cracks which extend across its surface. 

The position of these cracks, or crevasses, is always 
changing by the constant pressure of the ice. A crevasse 
will form, and then its gaping sides close and are 
welded or frozen together, and another crevasse is made 
elsewhere. 

All along the sides of the glacier rocks and earth are 
falling down the slope and lodge on the edge of the 
ice. These in time form long walls which are called 
moraines. By and by as the ice is pushed far down into 
the region of cultivated fields the ice give place to a tor- 
rent of muddy water — the beginning of a river. 

The lower end of the glacier often pushes a wall of 
rock in front of it, called the terminal moraine. Dur- 
ing the summer season the end of the glacier recedes 
some distance, but in the winter it again advances 
downward, each time pushing ahead its terminal moraine. 



80 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

This in time becomes a wall of rock, sometimes a liun* 
dred feet in height. 

But the glaciers which flow in the ravines of the Alps, 
as well as those of Mts. Shasta, Tacoma, and the Alaskan 
Range are small and insignificant compared with those 
which are found on the western coast of Greenland. 
Here the glaciers are a vast sheet of ice covering often 
several thousand square miles. One of them, Humboldt 
Glacier, has a sea-front sixty-miles in length, and the 
fragments broken from it become the icebergs so danger- 
ous to vessels plying between New York and Liverpool. 

It was glaciers of this sort that formerly covered the 
northern part of North America. They scoured out th& 
multitude of lake basins in the United States and 
Canada, and strewed the surface with boulders. Many of 
these boulders are found scattered over the north-eastern 
and north-western parts of Pennsylvania. 

The terminal moraine of this immense glacier is 
still plainly marked, and the long ridges of boulders 
pushed in front of the ice, are still visible — mute wit- 
nesses to the long glacier period. In Northampton, 
Monroe and Susquehanna Counties this is in places 
more than sixty feet in depth, and in all parts of the 
State north of the moraine the ground is strewn with 
boulders that the ice brought from regions lying to the 
northward. 

It is not necessary to look abroad or to distant parts 
of the western highlands in order to study glaciers. 
One may frequently see miniature g'aciers in ravines and 
cafions of Pennsylvania, at the breaking up of winter. 
Even the sheets of snow that slip little by little from the 
roofs of houses, during the thaAV that follows a heavy 



THE WEATHER BUREAU. 81 

snow storm, frequently show nearly all the phenomena 
that may be seen in the study of the largest glaciers. 

The Weather Bureau. 

The Weather Bureau, under the control of the War 
Department, is a department established for the purpose 
of the publication of such forecasts of the weather, as 
will be of service to agriculture and commerce. The 
forecasts include: — 

The approach of storms. 

The probabilities of frost. 

The direction and probable changes of the wind* 

Probable changes of temperature. 

Threatened floods in rivers. 

High or destructive winds along the coast. 
In order to ascertain the information necessary to 
make these forecasts, about 300 stations have been estab- 
lished in various parts of the United States. At each 
station thrice a day at the same moment observations are 
made of tlie temperature, height of the barometer, 
amount of moisture in the air, and general condition of 
the weather. The results of these observations are tele- 
graphed to the central office at Washington and entered 
upon a map of the United States. 

It is then seen at a glance whether or not there are any 
areas in which the barometer is unusually low, or any 
in which the barometer is higher than normal. The 
area of low barometer is called a 'storm,* and it has 
been found that the wind from all directions is blowing 
towards it. 

As the wind approaches the centre of this area, its 
direction is somewhat changed, so that near the storm- 



82 GEOGRAPHY OF PENKSYLVAXIA. 

centre it has a whirling motion. Usually a storm is 
attended by more or less rain, but this is not always the 
case, — there may be nothing more than high winds. 
The rain does not always fall in all parts of the area of 
low barometer, but more commonly only in front of it. 

Many years of observation have shown that all storms 
in addition to their rotatory motion in the nortliern 
hemisphere move from a point in the west or south-west 
to one in the east or north-east. With this knowledge 
it is not difficult to predict the approach of a storm. 

With each day's reports it is readily seen whether a 
storm or area of low barometer has formed anywhere in 
the west. The storm once formed, its direction and the 
velocity of its advance may be predicted with tolerable 
accuracy. In fact they are practically known before 
hand, and it is only when the storm swerves from its 
ordinary track that the prediction concerning it fails. 

There are two storm-tracks east of the Rocky Moun- 
tains which nearly all the storms follow. Those form- 
ing at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains advance 
eastwardly by a little north. Those forming in the 
Caribbean Sea or the Gulf of Mexico move in a north- 
easterly path, sweeping along the Atlantic Plain, but 
rarely extending west of the Appalachian Mountains. 

The approach of a storm may often be foretold by an 
inspection of the wind and clouds. Let us suppose a 
storm has formed at some point in the west, and that its 
path lies across the State. A moment's thought will 
show us that such a storm will be preceded by an east- 
erly, and will clear with a westerly wind. In most 
cases, especially in winter, the storm is preceded by 



COAL. 83 

warmer weather and followed by a cold wave — that is a 
fall in temperature to below 40° F. 

A system of signal flags has been adopted by the 
United States and by most of the State Weather Bureaus. 
Fair or clear weather is indicated by a white flag; rain 
or snow by a dark blue flag. Temperature is indicated 
by a triangular flag above or below the weather flag. If 
no change of temperature is anticipated no temperature 
flag is displayed. If the triangular flag is above the 
other, warmer weather is indicated; if below, colder 
weather will follow. A probable cold wave is indicated 
by a white flag with a black square in the centre. 

Coal. 

Coal is a mineral consisting mainly of carbon, which 
occurs in nature and the arts in the various forms of 
mineral coal, charcoal, lampblack, diamond, and graph- 
ite or plumbago. It is also the chief element in animal 
and vegetable tissue, in mineral oil or petroleum and in 
natural gas. 

Although coal is classed among minerals it is undoubt- 
edly of vegetable origin. As we look at the shining, 
black lumps that we throw upon the grate or into the 
furnace, there is nothing to connect them with, the 
delicate forms that we see in the beautiful leaves and 
flowers, twigs and shrubs, with which nature has 
bedecked the landscape. 

Let us take a piece of coal, however, and split it into 
thin layers. As we cleave the layers one after another 
we shall here and there find the imprints of leaves, their 
outlines just as perfect as they were the day they fell 
from the stems in which they grew many thousand 
years ago. Or, perhaps, if we grind a small, flat piece 



84 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

SO thin that it is transparent, we shall be able to see the 
fibres and cells of plant -growth. 

No matter where we get coal — from England, China, 
Pennsylvania, or California — we can scarcely find a 
piece that does not bear witness to its vegetable origin. 
Sometimes we find stems of peat-moss, sometimes ferns, 
sometimes large tree-trnnks. Even in the hard, glassy 
anthracite coal traces of vegetation may be occasionally 
found. 

Although coal is of vegetable origin it is classed 
among the minerals. In jjosition and arrangement the 
testimony of their having been formed by the action of 
water is so strong, that the coal-beds are classed among 
the water-formed or stratified rocks. 

Let us see how all this vegetable matter accumulated 
so as to form the coal-beds. In some instances we find 
the coal to consist almost wholly of peat-moss, and it is 
thought that what now constitute such beds of coal were 
formerly peat-swamps — just such swamps as we find to- 
day. If we examine almost any swamp we shall find the 
half-decomposed vegetable matter covering the swamp to 
a depth of many feet. Because the swamp does not dry 
up, dead stalks and leaves cannot be removed. To a 
certain extent the water preserves them, and the amount 
of vegetable matter thus constantly increases. 

The substance called 'peat 'may be the remains of 
almost any creeping plant that grows under water, but 
it is generally used as the name of a kind of moss that 
grows in the form of a long slender stem, without roots, 
leaves or flowers. Although it dies at one end of the 
creeper, it retains life and carries on a vigorous growth 
at the other. 



COAL. 85 

Such swamps are common in all parts of the world, 
and in many countries the fresh peat washed and dried 
is almost the only fuel used. Peat swamps are common 
in Ireland, in France, and along the Danube. In the 
United States they are so common that there is scarcely 
a State east of the Eocky Mountains where they are not 
numerous. It is not uncommon to find these quaking 
bogs underlying many square miles, and having a depth 
of sixty feet or more. 

In other instances the coal bed was formerly an 
immense mass of drift wood, which was carried dovn 
by rivers and lodged somewhere along their lower cc arses. 
The formation of such drifts in rivers was very common 
in former ages; it is common even at the present time. 
There is such a drift in the Red River, covering an 
extent of many square miles ; there are several in one of 
the branches of the Columbia River that are very large. 
Furthermore these drifts, or rafts as they are called, are 
constantly increasing, because while floating matter is 
always lodging at the up-stream end little or none 
floats away from the lower part. 

In the gold-mines of California several such rafts 
have been found at different depths underground. In 
a certain instance one raft lies above another with about 
one hundred feet of gravel between them. The timber 
of the lower drift lay in water, and has been partly 
changed to coal. The upper raft was left in a dry place 
and the timber, although nearly 400 feet under ground, 
is perfectly preserved. 

The next step in the formation of the coal was the 
covering of the peat-bog or timber-raft with sediment 
which was swept over it by waves, by floods or by the 



86 GEOGKAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

current of the river. As year after year passed the 
accumulation of sediment, gravel and coarse drift kept 
on growing in thickness until the layer of vegetable 
matter was many feet under the surface. 

The enormous weight of the sediment soon pressed 
the layer of peat together until it was perhaps less than 
one-tenth its former thickness. The pressure generated 
heat, and the natural decay of the vegetation added still 
more. Little by little in the long lapse of time the 
woody tissue changed under the combined action of 
heat, pressure and moisture until finally it acquired the 
form which we now call 'coal.^ 

At first it was much like the droivn coal or lignite th.a,t 
is found in parts of California. It was rather more 
like coal than wood, but still preserved much of the 
appearance it had when in its natural state. 

As the process of formation continued the brown coal 
was gradually converted into the bituminous or soft coal, 
such as is found in western Pennsylvania, and the 
Mississippi Valley. Bituminous coal breaks into blocks 
often of very regular shape. In nearly every case it 
splits easily into thin parallel layers. Moreover when 
thrown upon the fire it partly melts into a thick tarry 
mass known as asphaltuni or hitumen. Bituminous coal 
is rich in many useful products. The tar or bitumen is 
easily driven off by heat. It yields illuminating gas, 
paraffine, carbolic acid, vaseline, and the beautiful ani- 
line dyes. It also yields the valuable m.edicines anti- 
pyrene, salol and sulphonal. Some varieties like canncl 
(or candle) coal consist almost wholly of bitumen. 

But there is still another kind of coal that occurs in 
a few small areas in the Appalachian Mountains, as stono 



COAL. 87 

or anthracite coal. It is much harder than the other 
kinds of coal, and has a bright glossy appearance when 
freshly broken. This sort of coal burns with but littlo 
flame and smoke, and does not yield any coal tar or gas 
when it is heated. 

The reason for this is not hard to find. When these 
coal-beds w^ere young, the seams lay fiat, and the coal 
did not differ from other soft coal. But, in time, when 
this vast expanse of land was crimpled and wrinkled into 
the folds we now call the Appalachian Mountains, the 
coal-seams were so squeezed that between the heat and 
the enormous pressure, all the volatile matters were 
driven off. In fact anthracite coal does not differ 
greatly from the coke that is made in the retorts at the 
gas works, and if a'q could take the hot coke from the 
retorts and subject it to great pressure it would not 
differ from anthracite coal. 

In some cases the combined action of heat and pres- 
sure was carried on to such an extent that the vegetable 
matter was finally changed to the mineral called grapltite 
or plumlago, but which is best known as Uack-Jcad. 
This mineral does not burn at all. On the contrary, it is 
of cen used in making crucibles which are to stand intense 
heat. Some varieties of anthracite coal, especially that 
mined in Khode Island, resembles graphite in luster, and 
is so hard that it burns with no little difficulty. 

The making of coal has been goin^ on in nearly all 
times in the earth's history. We find coal associated 
with the rocks of nearly every age. The most extensive 
as W'cll as the thickest beds were formed at a period 
between the Age of Fishes and the Age of Reptiles. 
This period is generally known as the Carboniferous or 



88 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

Coal Age. Many large fields, notably those in the western 
coast of the United States, were formed at a much later 
age. These are generally called cretaceous coals. 

The same laws which underlay the formation of the 
coal-fields of past ages are still busily at work. Just as 
the peat-swamps of a former period are the coal-beds of 
to-day, so the timber rafts, the peat-bogs and the tule- 
marshes of to-day will be the coal-fields of a future age 
— the sun's heat condensed and stored up for use in 
time to come. 

The coal-fields of the United States underlie an aggre- 
gate area of nearly 200,000 square miles. Of the various 
fields the Appalachian is the richest and most produc- 
tive in the world. It underlies the whole of Western 
Pennsylvania, Eastern Ohio and parts of West Virginia, 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama. The 
aggregate thickness of the workable seams is about 120 
feet, and its area is not less than 60,000 square miles. 

From the foregoing paragraphs it will be apparent 
that the coal-fields physically considered are nothing 
more than condensed sunlight and heat, — vast reservoirs 
of solar energy first developing vegetable growth and 
thence stored up in times past for our use to-day. Prop- 
erly applied, the energy contained in a single pound of 
coal is more than equal to the physical labor of a strong 
man for a day. 

Petroleum. 

But little is known about the origin of petroleum. 
It is found in various parts of the world. There are 
fields or horizons of unknown extent in Canada, West 
Virginia, Ohio, and California. It occurs abundantly 



PETROLEUM. 89 

in various parts of Europe and Asia, especially along 
the Caspian Sea. These fields of which Baku is the 
commercial outlet are the most extensive known. 

It is thought that the oil-fields of Pennsylvania are 
connected with the vast deposits of sea-weed and coral- 
loid growths that were formed during the early (Paleo- 
zoic) history of the earth, but just how the oil was 
formed and stored up in its present beds is a matter 
of hypothesis, but little better than guess-work. There 
is evidence, however, that the oil w^as formed under great 
pressure and in the presence of salt water, and at a tem- 
perature lower than that of boiling water. This theory, 
however, w^ill not hold true of the California fields. In 
the Pennsylvania fields the oil occurs in three strata of 
sandstone separated by layers of shale, each upwards of 
two hundred feet thick. 

Petroleum is not a true oil, but a mixture of liquid sub- 
stances, some of which are highly volatile. It is ' refined * 
by distilling the crude oil at different temperatures. 
Naphtha and benzine (a mixture of volatile substances) 
are first driven off, and then the moderately volatile 
mixture which constitutes the kerosene or coal oil of 
commerce. The two products are condensed in sepa- 
rate receivers. There remains a sluggish oily substance 
in the retort from which a good lubricating oil is manu- 
factured. Paraffine, 'cosmoline' or 'vaseline^ and 
asphaltum are among the useful substances obtained 
from petroleum. Good coal oil when heated in a shal- 
low vessel should not give off an inflammable gas — one 
which takes fire from a lighted match — at a tempera- 
ture lower than 150°. This is known as the * flash test/ 



90 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

The crude oil is obtained by drilling artesian wells 
through the overlying strata of rock. When a field is 
*new/ i. e,, recently tapped, the wells are usually * spout- 
ers/ the oil frequently spouting several feet above the 
surface. After a time the pressure lessens, and the oil 
must be pumped to the surface. Occasionally as a well 
becomes sluggish, a change or torpedo' of dynamite is 
exploded at the bottom of the well. This by shattering 
the sandstone increases the flow of oil. At present 
nearly all the wells in the State as well as the refineries 
are controlled by the Standard Oil Company. 

Natural Gas. 

Our knowledge of the origin of natural gas is even 
more theoretical and uncertain than that of mineral oil. 
Sometimes we find it associated with the latter, but in 
other localities they exist at wide distances and seem to 
have no connection. A common theory is that in some 
places the oil-deposits, in others the coal-beds, have 
been subjected to a moderate internal heat, and the 
volatile gases driven off have collected in reservoirs 
under impervious layers of shale, etc. This theory, 
although consistent, is but little better than a guess. 

The gas is obtained in the same manner as petroleum. 
An artesian well is sunk until a gas-reservoir is tapped* 
In new wells the pressure of the gas sometimes exceeds 
300 pounds per square inch. Thus far the waste of gas 
has been enormous, and in many instances it is burned 
at the mouth of the well in order to get rid of it. 
Lately attempts have been successfully made to use it 
in smelting ores, generating steam, and for lighting 
and heating houses. Its use in Pittsburgh has changed 
that city from the smokiest to one of the cleanest in thet 



IROK. 91 

country. The great decrease in the pressure of the 
gas in many places is looked on as an indication that 
the supply is not inexhaustible — an apprehension that 
has somewhat checked the extravagant waste. About 
twenty cubic feet of air are required to consume one 
cubic foot of gas. 

Iron. 

Iron is rarely found in nature as a metal: nearly always 
it is combined with some other element such as oxygen, 
carbon, or sulphur, and the process of 'smelting' con- 
sists in freeing the metal from these elements. The 
most common ore is generally known as hematite and is 
composed of iron and oxygen in the proportion of about 
three-fifths of the former and two of the latter. The 
metal is separated from the oxygen by heating it strongly 
with good coke or charcoal. 

The ore is placed in the smelting furnace with alter- 
nate layers of coke and limestone, and then a strong 
blast is anplied so as to intensely heat the contents of 
the furnace. Now charcoal or carbon has a much 
stronger greed for oxygen than the iron has, and when 
the ore reaches a white heat, the atoms of carbon begin 
to catch atoms of oxygen and fly oif with them in the 
form of a gas. 

As fast as the oxygen atoms are carried off the iron 
drops down in a molten state, while the limestone holds 
the various earthy matters which do not melt. When 
considerable molten iron has gathered at the bottom 
of the furnace a plug is drawn and the iron runs out 
and is collected in short furrows that have been made in 
the sand to receive it. Fresh layers of ore, coal, and 



92 GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 

limestone are thrown into the furnace at the top and so 
the process goes on day and night. 

The metal drawn off is called ' pig ' iron. It is by 
no means pure, and before it can be used must be refined. 
If it is to be run into castings it is remelted in a 'cupola^ 
furnace with a strong blast so that the greater part of 
the carbon is consumed. The amount of aeration it 
receives depends on whether a fine and tough or a 
coarse and brittle metal is required. 

Most of the ore, however, is destined to make wrought 
iron. For this purpose the crude metal is melted in a 
shallow furnace through which ?. draught of air is forced. 
As the carbon and other impurities are burned the mol- 
ten mass is constantly stirred until it has become tough 
and pasty. This is called 'puddling^ the metal, and 
the furnace is a 'puddling furnace.' When the metal 
has become quite stiff the puddler heaps it into balls 
weighing about one hundred pounds each. These are 
passed between heavy rollers, reheated and rolled again 
and again until the iron is formed into bars, rails or 
plates. 

Steel differs from iron in containing a definite, fixed 
amount of carbon. In the manufacture of Bessemer or 
crucible steel, cast iron and a certain amount of selected 
ore are smelted together. A strong blast of air is forced 
through the mass until all but the necessary percentage 
of carbon has been consumed. The metal is then cast 
into huge ingots which are successively heated and 
rolled until it receives its final shaping. 

The value of iron represents the value of labor only. 
A pound of pig iron is worth, perhaps, a cent; a pound 
of steel converted by skilled labor into hair-springs for 
watches is worth several thousand dollars. 



educational ikstitutions. 95 

Colleges and Schools. 
The following list embraces all leading colleges and 
schools for higher and technical instruction. 

University of Penusyl vaniti Philadelphin . 

Jefferson Medical College " 

Pennsylvania College of Dentistry 

College of Physicians and Surgeons " 

College of Pharmacy " 

Halmneman Medical College " 

Nautical and Engineering College " 

Polytechnic College 

Women's School of Design " 

Academy of the Fine Arts " 

Girard College (industrial) " 

School of Industrial Art " 

Bryn Ma wr College (for women) Bryn Mawr. 

Pittsburgh Female College Pittsburgh. 

Western University of Pennsylvania 

Allegheny College Mead ville. 

Franklin and Marshall College Lancaster. 

Lafayette College Easton. 

Beaver College Beaver. 

Mulhlenberg College Allentown. 

St. Thomas of Yillanova Villanova. 

Lehigh University South Bethlehem. 

Ursinus College Collegeville. 

Lincoln University Lincoln University 

Dickinson College Carlisle. 

Pennsylvania State College Centre County. 

Pennsylvania College Gettysburg. 

St. Vincent's College Latrobe. 

Bucknell University Lewisburg. 

Washington and Jefferson College Washington. 

Waynesburg College Waynesburg. 

Westminister College New Wilmington^ 

Swarthmore College Swarthmore. 

Haverford College Haverford. 



INDEX 



Academy of the Fine Ails. 


52 


Blue Mountains, 


18, 21, 22, 25, 71 


Adirondack Mountains, 


71 


Blue Ridge, 


21 


Agriculture, 


40 


Borough officers. 


48 


Alabama, 


88 


Boston, 


44,61 


Alaskan Kange, 


80 


Braddock's Defeat, 


57 


Alle^'hany Mountains, 18, 21 


,25,;i-l,GG 


Bradford, 


68 


Alleghany River, 


20, 37 


Bradford County, 


65 


Allegheny City 


48,07 


Brandywine, 


57,63 


Observatory, 


08 


Bridesburg, 


59 


Allegheny County, 


C8 


Brown coal. 


85 


Allentown, 


61,05 


Brownsville, 


30 


Female College. 


64 


Buchanan, James, 


C3 


Alps, the, 


71,80 


Bucks County, 


62,76 


Altoona, 


66 


Buffalo, 


44, 45 


An'mals, 


31 


Building-stone, 


38 


Anthracite coal. 


86 


Burro wes, Thos. H., 


52 


Appalachian System, 








18, 21, 22, 26, 34, 72, 


82, 87, 88 


California, 53, 


84, 85, 86, 88, 89 


Area, 


17 


Cambria County, 


68 


Ashley, 


65 


Canada, 


22, 77, 78, 88 


Asphaltum, 


86 


Canals, 


25,45 


Atlantic Ocean, 


44 


Cannel coal. 


86 


Atlantic Plain, 


82 


Canons, 


72 


Atlantic Slope, 


18,22 


Carbon County, 


66 






Carboniferous Age, 


87 


Baker, 


89 


Caribbean Sea, 


82 


Bald Eagle Valley, 


22 


Carlisle, 


04 


Baltimore & Ohio R. R., 


44,61 


Caspian Sea, 


89 


Benzine, 


89 


Charles II., 


58 


Berks County, 


37, 41, 02 


Charleston, 


61 


Bessemer steel. 


41,92 


Chesapeake Bay, 


26 


Bethlehem, 


64, 65 


Chester, 


65,63 


Bitumen, 


86 


Chester County, 


63 


Bituminous coal. 


35, 38, 86 


Chestnut Hill, 


59 


Black lead. 


83,87 


Chicago, 


44 


Blair County, 


41, 66 


China, 


Si 


Block coal, 


35 


Cities and Towns, 


59 



(94) 









INDEX. 


95 


Citizenship, 






48 


Fairmount Park, 


60,61 


Civil government, 






47,48 


Fish, 


31 


Clarion Creek, 






26 


Flash test. 


89 


Climate, 






29,32 


Forestry, 


3a 


Clinton County, 






66 


France, 


85 


Coal, 


18, 


3^1, 


, 35, &3 


Franklin, 


68 


Coal-oil, see PetroUum. 








Franklin, Benjamin, 


61 


Colleges, 






93 


Frankford, 


59 


Columbia River, 






85 


Free schools. 


51 


Commerce, 






44,61 


Freeport, 


30 


Confluence, 






30 


French Creek, 


26 


Continental Congress, 






63 


French and Indian Wars. 


57 


Cornwall mines. 






37, 62 


Friedensville, 


38 


Corry. 






31,68 


Friends, 


56 


Cosmoline, 






89 






Counties, 






48 


Ganges River, 


75 


Crawford County, 






27,68 


Gap Mine. 


38 


Crest of a mountain. 






71 


Gas, illuminating, 


35 


Crevasses, 






79 


Gas, natural, 


37, 83, 90 


Cumberland County, 






64 


Georgia, 
German language. 


88 
62 


Danube River, 






85 


Gei-mantown, 


57, 59 


Dauphin County, 






62 


Gettysburg, 


64 


Davis, W. M., quoted, 






76 


Glaciers, 


77 


Deer Run, 






76 


Glasgow, 


61 


Delaware Bay, 17, 


25, 


31, 


,44,45 


Government, 


47 


Delaware County, 






57,63 


Graphite, 


83,87 


Delaware Indians, 






55 


Grazing, 


29 


Delaware River, 








Great Lakes, 


44, 45, 68 


22,25, 27,31,41,44,55, 


56, 


64, 


, 71, 74 


Great Savage Mountain, 


21 


Delaware, State of. 






17 


Great Valley, 


22 


Delaware & Hudson Canal, 




44 


Green Mountains, 


21 


Dickinson College, 






51,64 


Greenland, 


80 


Divides, 






27 


Gulf Coast, 


22,44 


Drainage, 






25 






Drift wood, 






85 


Harrisburg, 


62 


Dutch settlers. 






58 


Ilazelton, 


66 


Dutch West India Co., 






55 


Hematite, 
Hemlock lumber. 


91 
41 


Easton, 






64,65 


Henlopen. Cape of, 


55 


Education, 






51,53 


Herbariums, 


32 


England, 


66, 


,58 


,64,84 


Higbee, E.E., 


52 


Erie, city of, 




35, 


, 44, 68 


Higher education, 


52 


Erie County, 






68 


History, 


35 


Erie, Lake, 17, 


, 18, 26, 27, 44 


Holmesburg, 


59 


Executive department, 






47 


Humboldt Glacier, 


m 



96 



GEOGRAPHY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 



Ice, 


26, 


72, 77 


McKeesport, 






68 


Independence Hall, 




61 


Mahanoy City, 






34,69 


Industrial education. 




51 


Maine, 






26 


Industries, 


40, 


42, 70 


Mammoth Vein, 






34 


Ireland, 




85 


Mantua, 






59 


Iron, 






Manual training. 






51, 52 


18, 34, 35, 37, 38, 41, 


64, 66, 


67, 01 


Manufactures, 
Manayunk, 






41,60 
59 


Johnstown, 




66 


Marietta, 






SI 


Judicial department. 




47 


Maryland, 






17 


Juniata Kiver, 




26 


Mason & Dixon's Line, 

Massachusetts, 






17 
53 


Kaatskill Mountains, 




25 


Mauch Chunk, 






34, 06 


Kensington, 




56, 59 


Meadville, 






C8 


Kentucky, 




88 


Memphis, 






44 


Kerosene, see Petroleum. 






:Method of teaching geography, 


, 10,23, 


Keyser Ridf^c, 




22 


'?7. 31. 35. 38, 42, 45 


,48, 


,53, 


, 57, 59 


Kishicoquilis Valley, 




22 


Mexico, Gulf of, 






75, 82 


Kiskiminitas Creek, 




26 


Michigan, 






37 


Kitatinny Mountains, see Blue Mts. 


Mifflin, Fort, 






57 








Millersville, 






G3 


Lackawanna County, 




40,65 


Mineral wealth. 






34,41 


Lackawanna River, 




26 


Mining, 






40 


Lafayette College, 




51,64 


Minuit, 






55 


Lakes, 


26, 


68, 76 


]\Iississippi River, 






74. 75 


Lancaster, 


38, 


62,63 


Mississippi Valley, 


18,30, 


44,70 


Lebanon, 




62 


Monongahela River, 






26 


Lebanon County, 


37, 


, 41, 62 


Monroe County, 






80 


Legislative department, 




47 


Montgomery County, 




57, 


, 63, 70 


Lehigh County, 


41, 


64.76 


Moraines, 






79 


Lehigh River, 


22, 25, 


, 45, 71 


Mountain ranges. 






71 


Lehigh University, 




52,64 


Mountain systems, 






71 


Lehigh Valley, 




65 


Mountains, 


21, 


23 


, 29, 70 


Lehigh Valley R. R., 




44 


Muhlenburg College, 






64 


Lignite, 




86 










Limestone valleys, 




29 


Nanticoke, 






65 


Liverpool, 




61,80 


Naptha, 






89 


Local history, 




57 


Natural gas. 




37 


, 83, 90 


Lock Haven, 




66 


Negro Mountain, 






22 


Longfellow, H. W., 




65 


Netherlands, 






» 56 


Louibvillo, 




44 


Nevada, 






53 


Lumber, 


26, 30 


, Ah 66 


New England, 






21 


Luzerne County, 




40, 65 


New Netherlands, 






51 


Lycoming County, 




66 


New Orleans, 
New York. 






44, 59 


McKean County, 




41.68 


IS, 25, 37, 40, 41 


.44, 


, 45, 59, 80 









INDEX. 


y? 


Nickel, 






38 


Presque Isle Bay, 


68 


Nile Eiver, 






74, 75 


Professional schools, 


52 


Nittany Valley, 






22 






Norristown, 






63 


Quakers, see Friends, 




Northampton County, 






64,80 






North Branch, 






22, 65 


" Eafts," 


85 


North Carolina, 






21 


Eailways, 
Eainfall, 


44,45 
29 


Oak lumber, 






30 


Eattlesnakes, 


31 


Ohio Eiver, 25, 


,26, 


44 


, 67, 88 


Eayston Eiver, 


26 


Oil C;ity, 






30,68 


Eeading, 


62 


Oley Valley, 






37 


Eed Bank Creek, 


26 


Otsego Lake, 






25 


Eed Eiver, 
Eeptiles, 


85 
31 


Parafflne, 






89 


Eevolutionary War, 


57 


Peak of a mountain. 






71 


Ehode Island, 


18,87 


Peat, 






84,88 


Ehone Eiver, 


75 


Penitentiaries, 






48 


Eichmond, 


59 


Penn, Wm., 


51, 


56. 


, 61, 62 


Elvers, 25, 27, 


30,70,72,85 


" Pennsylvania Dutch," 






62 


Eock-oil, see Petroleum. 




Pennsylvania K. E., 




44. 


, 61, 66 


Eocky IMountains, 


82,85 


Pennsylvania State College 


, 


52 






Pennsylvania, Univ. of, 






52 


St. Lawrence Eiver, 


18,25 


Pequea Valley, 






22 


St. Louis, 


44 


Perkiomen Creek, 






66 


Salt, 


38,77 


Perry, Commodore, 






69 


Savannah, 


61 


Petroleum, 18, 34, 37, 


41, 


45. 


,83,88 


School officers, 


47, 48, 51 


Philadelphia, 








Scranton, 


34, 65 


20, 30, 44, 45, 48, 


50, 


57, 


59, 63 


Schuylkill County, 


40,66 


and Eeading E. E., 






44,61 


Schuylkill Eiver, 




Phillipsburg, N. J., 






24 


22, 25, 45, 56, 


60, 71, 74, 75 


Phoenixville. 






64 


Schuylkill Valley, 


22 


Physical Geography, 






70 


Shamokin, 


34,66 


Pike County, 






27 


Shasta Mountain, 


80 


Pine lumber. 






30,41 


Shenandoah, 


34, 66 


Pine Eiver, 






26 


Ship-yards, 


41, 60, 63 


Pittsburgh, 30, 37, 44, 


,45, 


57. 


, 67, 90 


Signal flags, 


83 


Female College, 






68 


Six Nations, 


55, 58, 64 


Pittston, 






34,65 


Size, 


17 


Plumbago, 






83,87 


Smoky Mountains, 


21 


Plymouth, 






65 


Snow, 


79 


Po Eiver, 






74, 75 


Soil, 


29,31 


Pocono Mountains, 






21 


South Bethlehem, 


64 


Position, 






17 


South Mountain, 


21,22 


Pottstown, 






63 


Southwark, 


59 


Pottsville, 






34,66 


Splint coal. 


35 



98 



GEOGRAPHY OF PENis^SYLVAKIA. 



Standard Oil Co,, 




90 


U. S. Weather Bureau, 30 


1, 31, 81 


State officers, 




47 






Stevens, Thaddeus, 


52, 


, 63 


Valleys, 21 


,22,73 


Stock-farming, 




40 


Vaseline, 


89 


Stone coal, 




86 


Vegetation, 


30 


Storm tracks. 




82 


Venango County, 


37,68 


Stroudsburg, 




25 


Virginia, 


21 


Stujrv^esant, Peter, 




55 






Sunbury, 




26 


Warren, 


68 


Surface, 




18 


Wan-en Comity, 


41, 68 


Susquehanna County, 




80 


Washington, City of. 


44,61 


Susquehanna River, 






Washington, George, 


59,61 


22, 25,26,27,41,45, 


62, 71, 74 


, 75 


Water gaps. 


25,76 


Swatara River, 


23, 26 


,71 


Water-sheds, 


27 


Swedish settlers, 


58 


,61 


Wayne County, 
Wayne, General, 


27 
69 


Tacoma Mountains, 




80 


Weather Bureau, 


30,31 


Taghanic Mountains, 




21 


West Branch, 


26 


Tamaqua, 


34 


,66 


West Virginia, 


88 


Tanneries, 




42 


West Chester, 


63 


Teachers' Institutes, 




51 


Western Univ. of Pa., 


68 


Tennessee, 




88 


White Mountains, 


71 


Texas, 




18 


Wickersham, J. P., 


52 


Timber, see Lnrnber. 






Wilkesbarre, 


34,65 


Tinicum Island, 




55 


Williamsport, 


30,66 


Titusville, 




68 


Wilmington, Del., 


55 


Tobacco, 




62 


Wind gaps. 


22,76 


Tornadoes, 




30 


Winds, 


81 


Torresdale, 




59 


Wisahickon Creek, 


60 


Towanda, 




65 


Woman's Schoool of Design, 


52 


Township officers. 




48 


Wyoming Valley, 


22,65 


Trenton, N. J., 


25 


,55 






Triangle, 


18 


,25 


York, 

York County, 


68 
62 


Uplandt, 




55 


York, Duke of. 


56 


U. S. Cavalry School, 




64 


Youghiogheny, 


26 


U. S. Fish Commission, 




31 






U. S. Navy, 


59 


,64 


Zinc, 


38,64 



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gle figures. In this so much W practice should 
pil when adding will learn ^^to look upon the 
" 13," not as " 4 and 9 are ^ 13," just 
as we learn to look up- 
on cat as an entire word , 
— not as c-a-t^ cat.^^^ Equal 

subtraction, until combinations of two fig- 
nations of letters in words. 

At first add familiar objects, passing 



liend, and give the re- 
tain if new combina- 
ready presented 

be constant. 



bers; write the simplest combinations on 
the cards, and write the answer in the 
times that the method of writing num- 
addition may be learned. Then use 
cards for drill, adding new cards 
from time to time, as new combina' 
veloped. Do not introdvce new 

At every exercise, review all 
answers should be given imme 
cards. Use the cards selected 
laneously, so that no answer 
ing. Pursue the same plan 
In subtraction when the 
readily add ten to the min- 
the usual manner. 

Success will be cer- I 
duced only after those al- 
learned. Keviews should 

From scores of testi- 
we select the following: 

" Will you send me one-half dozen cases of 
Cards? I have many inquiries for them 
have been lavish in their praise of our work 
these sets are given away to try the card 
teen packages of the cards I have order- 
our class drills more, send Prof. San- 
him more than he advertises."— 5. Q 
Fulton, N. Y., May 2, 1889. *' During 
Normal we used Sanford's Number 
primary and intermediate depart- 
lent for quick work 
Please send me three sets' 
for our primary and prepara- 
has once used them cannot 
Ph.D., headmaster Rutgers 
have frequently advised^ 
because I know from my 



be given that the pu- 
combination % as itself 



readiness should follow ia 
ures are as familiar as combi- 

ifterwards to abstract num- 

the blackboard, as they are on 

proper place. Repeat this a few 

bers for 

the^^^^^ 

tions are de- 
cards too rapidly. 
cards previously 
lately on present- 
f or a particular exercise 
can be guessed from the^Wprec( 
In subtraction and mulipli - .jBr cation. 
smaller number is above, ^^^f pupils will 
mainder i n 



'^iions are intro- 
a r e thoroughly 

monials received 



Sanford's Number 

Some of our visitors 

with the cards. Two of 

work. This makes four- 

ed. After a few days, when 

ford down and we will show 

Clapp, principal Union School, 

several years at the Potsdam 

Cards with great success in our 

meuts. We found them excel- 



tory departments here. A teacher who 

afford to be without them. "—£.//. Cook, 

College grammar school, Jan. 31 , 1890. ' 'I 

teachers to buy Sanford's Number Cards, 

own experience that they are very valuable 

I'naTdiirg'the teacher to'fix in the pupils' memory the results of the element- 
ary processes with numbers. "—TFm. J. Milne, LL.D., Ph.D., president New 
York State Teachers' College, Feb. 5, 1890. 
^ Sent post-paid in neat box, with directions, for 50 cts. 

,C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■ THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. 



Helps in Teaching Natural Science. 

1. Laboratorrj Manual of Experimental Physics. A brief course of Quan- 
titative Physics, intended for Beginners. By Albert L. Arey. Clotb, 
16mo, pp. 200. Price 75 cts. 

This is a directly practical manual for elementary experimental work in 
physics. It gives full details for the construction of inexpensive apparatus, 
is abundantly illustrated, and gives on the right-hand pages blanks for en- 
tries by the pupil, usually in tabular form. The advantages of quantitative 
experiments are recognized, and this book is the first to make them possible 
in the ordinary high school. Immediately upon its appearance it was 
adopted for use in the Rochester Free Academy. 

2. Syllabus of Lectures on Physiology. By Thos. B. Stowell, Ph.D., 
principal of the State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y. 3d edition. Boards, 
8vo, pp. 133. Price $1.00. 

This is, like the above, a manual for practical work, with illustrations, 
and with the right-hand pages blank. 

3. A Hundred Home-Made Experiments in Natural Science, by John S. 
McKay, Ph.D. Paper, IGmo, pp. 50, price 15 cts. 

This describes simple experiments so arranged as to teach physics in- 
ductively, and contains 17 illustrations. It may be used with profit in any 
district school. 

h. Systematic Plant Record. By Prof. L. M. Underwood, Ph. D., of 
Syracuse University. Manilla, 4to, pp. 52. Price 30 cts. 

The reputation of the author, who is eminent among the younger scien- 
tists of the country, is well sustained in this compendious and convenient 
record for the pupil's use. 

5. Dime Question Books of Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Botany, Zoology, 
Physiology, Astronomy. By Albert P. Southwick. Paper, 16mo, pp. about 
40. Price of each 10 cts. 

Without being exhaustive in these subjects, these little books give much 
information and many useful suggestions to teachers. They are capital for 
review, and especially as preparations for examination. 

6. Dime question Book of Stimulants and Narcotics, Y)rei)'dred insiccovd- 
ance with the effort to promote Temperance in the Public Schools. By 
C. W. Bardeen. Paper, 16mo, pp. 40. Price 10 cts. 

It is invaluable to many others besides teachers. It quotes all the 
standard authors in its respective topics. — Commonwealth, Boston. 

The few remarks about tobacco are, I think, truthful and just, neither 
too strong nor too mild. I could wish that our writers on alcohol would 
use a like moderation in their statements.—^. Hazleivood, M.D., Grand Bap- 
ids, Mich., member of the State Board of Health, July 31, ISSlt. 

7. How to Teach Natural Science in the Public Schools. By W. T. Har- 
Bis, LL.D., Commissioner of Education. Paper, 16mo, pp. 40. Price 15 cts. 

Nothing better on the subject is accessible in so compact a form.— 
The Critic, Aug. S7, 18S7. ^ 

Cp W, BAKDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y, 



THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. 

Helps iu Teaching Penmanship.* 

• 1. Wells^s Improved Practical Methods of PenmansJiijJ. Chautauqua Series. 
Copy Books, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Manilla, 7x8j^, pp. 24, per dozen, $1.20. 

No. 1 presents a series of 24 oval exercises, combining in simple form 
all of the curve movements employed in writing— and may be used to ad- 
vantage through two terms. It is designed to teach arm movement, pur© 
and simple. 

No. 2 contains a series of drills in large text hand, by means of which 
the straight line movement so essential to correct formation is thoroughly 
mastered ; and introduces the standard capital letter movements systemati- 
cally grouped and followed by drills on the letters themselves. 

No. 3 is designed through a series of well arranged exercises to de- 
velop and apply the sliding or lateral movement in connection with the arm 
action. The movement acquired by this drill is the essential element in all 
business or current hand writing, giving both freedom and smoothness to 
the text. This number introduces the forms of all small letters and capitals, 
with a complete drill on the numerals. 

No. 4 gives an attractive series of extended capital movement drills, 
together with useful combinations of the capital letters in connection with 
words. The special object of this number is to promote freedom and speed 
in execution ; it also contains a review of all the letters. 

In the Syracuse schools, where the method has been in use smce 1879, 
numbers 1, 2 and 4 are each used two terms, and No. 3, four terms. • 

• In a testimonial dated June 26, 1889, Sup't Blodgett and every one of the 
20 principals of public schools in Syracuse unite in saying : 

" This branch, which ten years ago was considered so difficult to handle 
and so generally barren of good results has become one of the most popular 
and helpful adjuncts of our school work. 

" A fundamental pnnciiyle of this system is in the substitution of the arm 
movemeyits for those of the fingers for all purposes of writing, by means of 
which the youngest scholars may secure a freedom and strength in the 
character of their penmanship much in advance of anything hitherto shown. 

" We take the term examination papers as the only true test of a schol- 
ar's advancement in penmanship, and as measured by this severe standard 
the results uniformly obtained are not only highly satisfactory, but are in 
many instances a revelation as to the possibilities in teaching business writ- 
ing to children in the public schools. 

" We are satisfied that this plan of teaching as introduced and carried 
on in our city schools here is entirely feasible, and that under like conditions 
equally good results may be obtained anywhere." 

^. A Lesson on Arm Movement in Wtiting. By Chas. R. Wells. Paper, 
8vo, pp. 32, illustrated, 25 cts. 

This is an exposition of the principles and practice of the above system. 

S. Penmanship in Public Schools. By J. L. BtmBiTT. 12mo, pp. 62, and 
chart. 60 cts. 

A. The Writing Portfolio. By C. J. Brown. Nos. 1-5, each 25 cts. 

"C. W. BAKDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N, Yi^ 



THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATION'S, 

The Eegents' Questions. 

1. The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar and Spell- 
mg from the first examination in 1866 to June 1882. {No questions of later date 
will be printed.) Being the 11,000 Questions for the -ircliminary examinations 
for admission to the University of the State of Y,o\: York, prepared by the 
Regents of the University, and participated in simuItn.neously by more than 
250 academies, forming a basis for the distribution of more than a million of 
dollars. Complete with Key. Cloth, lOmo, pp. 473. 02.00. 

2. Complete. The same as above but v^ithout answers. Pp. 340. $1.00. 
In the subjects named, no other Question Book can compare with this 

either in completeness, in excellence, or in popularity. By Legislative En- 
actment no lawyer can be admitted to the bar in the State of New York 
without passing a Eegents' Examination in these subjects. 

3. Separately. The same, each subject by itself, all Manilla, 16mo. 
Arithmetic, 1293 Questions, pp. 93, 25 cts. Geography, 1987 Questions, pp 

70, 25 cts. Grammar, 2976 Questions, pp. 109, 25 cts. Spelling, 4800 Words, 
pp. 61, 25 cts. Keys to Arithmetic, Geography, and Grammar, each 25 cts. 

L The Dime Question Books, with full answers, notes, queries, etc. Paper, 
pp. about 40. By A. P. Southwick. Each 10 cts. 

Elementary Series. Advanced Series. 

3. Physiology. 1. Physics. 

4. Theory and Practice. 2. General Literature, 
6. U. S. History and Civil Gov't. 5. General History. 

10. Algebra. 7. Astronomy. 

13. American Literature. 8. Mythology. 

14. Grammar. 9. Rhetoric. 

15. Orthography and Etymology. 11. Botany. 

18. Arithmetic. 12. ZoOiogy. 

19. Physical and Political Geog. 16. Chemistry. 

20. Reading and Punctuation. 17. Geology. 

These 10 in one book. Cloth, $1.00. These 10 in one book. Cloth, $1.00. ' 

Extra Yohmies, 21. Temperance Physiology, 22. Book-Keeping, 23. Let- 
ter-Writing, each 10 cts. 

The immense sale of the Regents' Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, 
Grammar, and Spelling has led to frequent inquiry for the questions in the 
Advanced Examinations. As it is not permitted to reprint these, we have had 
prepared tliis series, by which the teacher need purchase books only on the 
subjects upon which special help is needed. Frequently a $1.50 book is 
bought for the sake of a few questions in a single study. Here, the studies 
may be taken up one at a time, a special advantage in Neio York, since appli- 
cants for State Certificates may now present themseltes for examination in only 
part of the subjects, and receive partial Certificates to be exchanged for full Cer- 
tificates ivhen all the branches have been passed. The same plan is very gener- 
ally pursued by county superintendents and commissioners who are encour- 
aging their teachers to prepare themselves for higher certificates. 

5. Quizzism. Quirks and Quibbles fiwn Queer Quarters. Being a Melange 
of questions in Literature, Science, History, Biography, Mythology, Philolo- 
gy, Geography, etc. By A. P. Southwick. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 55. 25 cts. 
The same with Key, $1.00. 

A stimulus for home study, and invaluable for school or teachers' 
gatherings. 

6. A Quiz-Book on the Theory and Practice of Teaching. By A. P. 
Southwick. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 220. Price $1.00. 

This is one of the six books recommended by the State Department for 
study in preparation for State Certificates. 

C. W. BABI>EEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■THJi! iSVHOOl, BULLETIJS FVBLiVATIONS, 



Books of Eeference. 

The distinctive feature of a scholar's library is the large proportion of 
its books of reference. Education does not fill np a man with information : 
it teaches him where to go for information when he wants it, and gives him 
the habit of going for it when he wants it. This requires that he have at 
hand the books he will most frequently refer to. After the dictionary, 
among those most important to the teacher are the following : 

1. Tlie Cyclopcedia of Education. Cloth, 8vo, pp. 562, $3.75. 

This compares with other books on education as the dictionary com- 
pares with the spelling-book. The latter is useful, but the former is indis- 
pensable. In the latter you may find the word you want ; in the former you 
are sure to. This is a day when teachers must be well informed. Here are 
some of the topics you may be asked questions about, or may want to in- 
form yourself about : Pestalozzi, Comenius, Object Teaching, AscJiam, Froebely 
Thomas Arnold, The Kindergarten, Horace Mann, School Management, Indus- 
trial Education, School Economy, German Schools, School Laiv, Slojd, etc., etc. 
You may be sure you can find all of these topics and scores more like them 
in this book. It is the Pedagogical Unabridged Dictionary, and every ener- 
getic teacher must have it. 

2. A Pocket JIand-booJc of Biograj^hy, by Henkt Fkederic Eeddall. 
Cloth, IGmo, pp. 2G3, 75 cts. 

This handy volume contains more than ten thousand names of cele- 
brities in every sphere of human action, showing their nationality, rank or 
condition, profession or occupation, the dates of their birth and death, and 
effectually answers the frequent query,— "WHO WAS HE?" The Cyclo- 
pcedia Britannica is a bigger book and gives fuller information, but you 
will use this little volume a hundred times where you wouldn't take the 
trouble to look up a reference to a bigger one. 

3. The Ready Eeference Law Manual. By E. E. Knott. Cloth, 8vo» 
pp. 381, $2.00. 

This gives just the information that every intelligent person should 



It is not meant for Lawyers, but for those who are not lawyers. It 
gives clearly and simply the provisions of the law that concern every man, 
and of which it sometimes costs a man a good deal to be ignorant. Capital- 
ists often make their sons regularly admitted lawyers, not with any view to • 
practice, but that they may be able to protect the property they will inherit. 
Even the man of little property, or dependent on a salary from which he 
can not save much, should know the most Important features of the law. 
The little needs protection even more than the much, for loss is more dis- 
astrous. 

U. Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. By Peter Mark Roget. 
Cloth, 12mo, pp. 710, $2.00. 

For acquiring an extensive vocabulary that will enable one to useiws^ 
the right word in the right place, this work has no equal. For illustration 
of its usefulness, see Bardeen's Complete RJietonc, pp. 401-403. 

C. W. BAKDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



'TEE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



Life and Works of Pestalozzi. 

1. Pestalozzi : his Aim and Work. By Baron De Guibips. Translated 
by Margaret Cuthbertson Crombie. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 33^, $1.50. 

Demands a deep and earnest perusal.— T'eac^rs' Aid, London, Feb. 3, 
1889. 

Amon^ the best books that could be added to the teacher's library.— 
Chautauquan, Oct., 1889. 

It is sufficient to say that the book affords the fullest material for a 
knowledge of the life of the great educational reformer.— iiiemfy World, 
June 2-2, 1889. 

Should be carefully studied \)Y e^evY tQ^c^QV.— The Pacific Educational 
Journal, Aug., 1889. 

The most satisfactory biography of Pestalozzi accessible to English 
readers.— Wisco?isin Journal of Edtication, Aug., 1889. 

There is not a teacher anywhere who cannot learn something by the 
perusal of this -wor^i.— Science, June 7, 1889. 

The work is a timely reminder how far we have strayed in following the 
deity of "examination," which should have been kept in its place as the 
handmaid of education.— T/ie Schoolmaster, London, Feb. 16, 1889. 

2. Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism. By R. H. Quick. Paper, 16mo, pp. 
40, 15cts. 

This is a reprint from Quick's Educational Reformers, and contains the * 
best brief abstract that has ever been written. 

S. The Pestalozzian Series of AHtJimetics. Teachers' Manual and First- 
Year Text-Book for pupils in the first grade. Based upon Pestalozzi's • 
method of teaching Elementary Number. By James H. Hoosb. Boards, 
16mo, 2 editions. Pupil's Edition, pp. 156, 35 cts. Teacher's Edition, containr 
ing the former, with additional matter, pp. 217, 50 cts. 

This is a practical exposition of the Pestalozzian Methx>d, and has met 
with great success not only in the Cortland Normal School, where it was 
first developed, but in many other leading schools, as at Gloversville, Baby- 
lon, etc. It is diametrically opposed to the Grube Method, and good teach- 
ers should be familiar with both, that they may choose intelligently between 
them. 

h. Lessons in Number, as given in a Pestalozzian School, Cheam, Surrey^ 
The Master's Manual. By C. Reiner. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 224. $1.50. 

5. Lessons in Form, or, an Introduction to Geometry as given in a Pesta-^ 
lozzian School, Clieam, Surrey. By C. Reiner. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 215. $1.50. 
Both 4 and 5 in one volume, $2.00. 

These works were prepared in 1835 under the supervision of Dr. C. Maya > 
in the first English Pestalozzian school, and have particular value as repre- 
senting directly the educational methods of the great reformer. 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.. 



■THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



Froebel and the Kindergarten. 

1. Autobiography of FriedricJi Froebel. Translated and annotated by 
Emily Michaelis and II. Keatly Moore. Cloth, .(2mo, pp. 183. $1.50. 

Useful and interesting * * * among the best that could be added to 
the teacher's library.— 77ie Chautauquan, Oct., 1889, 

There is no better introduction to the 'KmdievgoxiQn.—Wisconsin J&urmd 
jof Education, Sept., 1889, 

It is a book which can be trusted to make its own •waj.—The Independent^ 
Oct. 10, 1889. 

These two books [Froebel and Pestalozzi] recently from the press of the 
enterprising and discriminating house of C. W. Bardeen, are the last and not 
the least important contribution to American pedagogical literature. The 
professional library is incomplete without them.— Canada ScJiool Journal^ 
Sept., 1889. 

S. Child and Child-Nature. Contributions to the understanding of 
Froebel's Educational Theories. By the Baroness Marenholtz-Buelow. 
Cloth, 12mo, pp. 207. $1.50. 

It is a fit companion to the Autobiography and the two are published in 
the same style— a capital idea— and a royal pair of volumes they make. — 
Educational Courant, Oct., 1889. 

Its design is to illustrate the theory and philosophy of Froebel's system. 
It does this so clearly and pleasingly as to give no excuse for criticism. * * 
* * The volume is one profitable for every mother, as well as every teacher 
of children.-N Chicago Interocean, Sept. 14, 1889. 

3. The First Three Years of Childhood. By B. Perez, with an Intro- 
duction by Prof. Sully. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 294. $1.50. 

The eminent English psychologist, Prof. Sully says that Perez combines 
in a very happy and unusual way the different qualifications of a good ob- 
server of Children, and that he has given us the fullest account yet pub- 
lished of the facts of child-life. * * * tj^^ typography of the work is 
excellent, and in external appearance the book is by far the handsomest 
American edition issued.— Jb^/rna^ of Pedagogy, April, 1889. 

h. The Kindergarten System. Principles of Froebel's System, and their 
bearing on the Education of Women. Also Remarks on the Higher Educa- 
tion of Women. By Emily Shirreff. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 200. $1.00. 

5. Essays on the Kindergarten. Being a selection of Lectures read be- 
fore the London Froebel Society. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 175. $1.00. * 

6. Primary Helps. A Kindergarten Manual for Public School Teachers. 
8vo, boards, pp. 58, with 15 full page plates. 75 cts. -^^ ' 

7. The New Education. Edited by W. N. Hailmann. Vols. V and VI, 
the last published. Each 8vo, cloth, pp. 146. $2.00. . ..v _». 

9 8. The New Education. By Prof. J. M. D. Meikeljohn. Paper, 16mo, 
pp. 35. 15 cts. J 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y, 



■THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



The Five Great English Books. 

The recognition of Teaching as a Science was much earlier in England 
than in this country, and the five books which are there recognized as stan- 
dards, have probably no equals in soundness and scope. Hence they ar& 
usually the first books adopted by Reading Circles, and are indispensable to 
the library of an intelligent teacher. These are: 

1. Essays on Educational Beformers. By Robert Henrt Quick. Cloth,. 
16mo, pp. 330. Price $1.50. 

This is altogether the best History of Education. " With the suggestion 
that study slmdd be made interesting,'" writes Principal Morgan, of the Rhode 
Island State Normal School, " we most heartily agree. How this may be 
clone, the attentive reader will be helped in learning by the study of this 
admirable book." 

2. The First Three Tears of Childhood. By B. Perez. With an intro- 
duction by Prof. James Sully. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 294. Price $1.50. 

This is Incomparably the best psychology for primary teachers, and 
forms the proper Basis for pedagogical knowledge. The Journal of Pedagogy 
says (April, 1889): "Some of the greatest questions relating to primary edu- 
cation can only be solved by an accurate observation and correct interpre- 
tation of the infant mind, and as the author of this volume combines the 
proper qualifications for the w^ork with ample opportunity, his observations 
and deductions are entitled to the highest confidence." 

S. Lectures on the Science and Art of Education. By Joseph Payne. 
Cloth, 16mo, pp. 384. Price, $1.00. 

The student is now ready to take iip the Science of Education, which is 
nowhere else so brilliantly and effectively presented. The lectures are sin- 
gularly fascinating, and the full analysis and indexes in this edition make it 
easy to collate and compare all that the author has uttered upon any topic 
suggested. 

h. The Philosophy of Education, or the Priyiciiyles and Practice of Teaching. 
By THOMAr Tate. Cloth, ICmo, pp. 440. Price $1.50. 

This gives the application of the Science to the Art of Teaching, and is 
without a rival in its clear presentation and abundant illustrations. The 
author is not content with giving directions. He shows by specimens of 
class-work just what may be done and should be done. 

5. Introductory Text-Book to School Education, Method and School Man- 
agement. By John Gill. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 27G. Price $1.00. 

This supplements the work of all the rest by practical directions as to 
School Management. Of the five this has had a sale equal to that of all the 
rest combined. The teacher's greatest difficulty, his surest discomfiture if 
he fails, is in the discipline and management of his school. That this man- 
ual has proved of inestimable help is proved by the fact that the present 
Enghsh edition is the 44th thousand printed. 

C. W. BARDEBN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



The Song Budget Music Series. 

1. TJie Song Budget. A collection of Songs and Music for Educational 
Gatherings. By E. V. DeGraff. Paper, small 4to, pp. 76. 15 cts. 

This book owes its popularity to two causes: (1) It gives a great deal for 
the money. (2) The songs are not only numerous (107), but they are tM 
standard favorites of the last fifty years. 

This is why the book contains more music that will be used than any other 
book published. For in most books two-thirds of the tunes are written by 
the compilers, who are of course partial to their own productions. The suc- 
cess of this book is due to the fact that only those songs were admitted 
that have proved to be universal favorites, and the result is a school singing- 
book of popularity unexampled. For instance, a single firm in Cleveland, 
Ohio, had purchased of us up to Nov. 1, 1890, no less than 15,330 copies, be- 
sides 2,800 of the School Boom Chorus, and 3, 100 of the Century. 

g. The School Boom Chorus. A collection of Two Hundred Songs for 
Public and Private Schools, compiled by E. V. DeGraff. Boards, small 4to, 
pp. 148. 35 cts. 

This Is an enlarged edition of the Song Budget, with twice the number 
of songs. The plates of the last edition are so arranged that it is identical 
with the School Budget as far as page 68, so that both books can be used to- 
gether. 

3. The Song 
Century. Small 
4to, pp. 87. Pap- 
er,15 cts. Boards, 
25 cts. 

The popularity 
oiihQ Song Budg- 
et made it no easy 
task to prepare a 
similar collection 
to follow it in the 
schools where its 
songs had be- 
come familiar. 
The songs here 
given are a fina 
choice from more 
than a thousand 
which had been 
selected from 
every available 
source, but espe- 
cially from actu- 

ual and pleasing use in the school-room, though the book contains more 
pages than the Song Budget, the price is the same. Within six months from 
its first appearance 14,600 copies had been sold, and now the orders nearly 
equal those for the Bndnet. 

C. W, BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N, Y. 




■ THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS, 



The School Bulletin 

AND NEW YORK STATE EDUCATIONAL JOURNAL, 

EstahUsJied 1874. 16 Pages, 10x12. $1.00 a Tear. 

The School Bulletin is one of the five oldest educational journals in 
-America, and has been under the same editor and proprietor from the be- 
ginning. It is not filled with " methods " and other spoon-food for young 
teachers who want their ideas ready-made, but appeals to superintendents, 
principals, and assistant-teachers who regard their work as a vocation, and 
^ho want to look upon it broadly and comprehensively. 

In the feature of educational news it has never had a rival. Its chron- 
icles of what has happened in the schools of New York during the past sev- 
enteen years are unmatched in educational literature, and it has taken note 
ot whatever has happened in other States that involved general principles. 

The following are among recent expressions of opinion that the Bulle- 
tin and its editor have elicited. 

* " I get a multitude of educational journals, but I read only three of 
them. One of them is the School Bulletin."— Son. John Hancock, -S'ilaffi 
Commissioner of Schools, Columbus, Ohio, FebTniary 20. 1890. 

" We have a great number of exchanges, but there are only three edu- 
cational journals that I regularly read throuj?h, and one of them is the 
School Bulletln. When I read one of Mr. Bardeen's editorials I say to 
myself ' There is a man who knows what he is talking about.' "—George P. 
Brown, editor of The Public School Journal, February W, 1890. 

" If the reader wants two spicy and sensible essays by the keenest edu- 
cational writer of the day, he will find in the above what he wants.'"— Intel- 
ligence, Chicago. 

" In sending my renewal of subscription to the Bulletin, I desire to ex- 
press the great pleasure which I have enjoyed in reading? some recent arti- 
cles from your pen, especially the review of Miss Willard's book, and the 
description of the recent meeting of the National Association. They both 
show your remarkable power of analysis and felicity of expression."— yS'wpV 
John H. Clark, Flushing, N. Y. September G, 1890. 

" Permit me to add a word of commendation and appreciation for the 
articles which have recently appeared in the Bui-letin over your name. 
Their worth is all the more noticeable when compared with the trash that 
appears in so many of our educational papers."— George G. Ryan, principal 
high school, Leavenworth, Kansas, September 15, 1890. 

" Am delighted with your article on 'Homely Teachers.' It is not only 
Ibright, but beams with wisdom. It is the wisest of the wise things you 
^have ever WTitten. Please send mo a dozen copies of the Bulletin. I 
want the Oneonta pupils to stand high when examined under your form."— 
James M. Milne, Ph.D., principal Oneonta Normal, and president of New 
York State Teachers' Ass'n, October 2, 1890. 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



School Bulletin Teachers' Agency. 

^NoT ONE desirable place in fifty is filled now-a-days except directly or 
indirectly through the medium of a Teachers' Agency. Nearly all teachers 
holding responsible positions are themselves enrolled in some Agency and 
give to this Agency immediate information of prospective changes. Hence 
an outside teacher has no chance to learn of vacancies. Before he hears of 
them they have been filled by candidates notified by the Agency. A pro- 
gressive teacher could afford the annual fee for enrolment in an Agency for 
the information alone. He might not care to use it, but it is worth two dol- 
lars a year to be sure he has missed no opportunities he would like to know 
of. 

The Best Agencies, however, do not depend on information alone. By 
repeated successes, by fair dealing and through the influence of the teach- 
ers they have placed, they have won the confidence of many school boards 
and emplojnng principals. There are hundreds of schools that systematically 
engage all their teachers through an Agency and will not consider applica- 
tions from any other source. 

/The Fact is, matters do not go so much by chance as they used to in fill- 
ing vacancies. Time was when nothing was said or thought of changes till 
the end of the year, but nowadays teachers and school boards both have 
their eyes wide open. We happen to know as we write that a man now 
jprincipal of a $1600 school will oefore the end of the year be appointed 
teacher in one of the normal schools. We are pretty v^'ell satisfied that a 
man now getting SHOO will have the S1600 place. If he gets it we have our 
eye on another man now getting $1100 who will be glad of the $U00 place : 
in every case because these men are especially fitted for these places and 
desirous of them. All this in January. Now next June some principal who 
saves his two dollars by not registering in an Agency will read in the morn- 
ing newspaper that Principal So-and-so has been appointed to such a chair 
in such a normal school, and will pack his valise, take tl)e train, and Imrry 
off to Principal So-and-so's present place to apply for his position before 
anyone else gets there. It will surprise him to learn that the vacancy was 
provided for six months before— if he does find it out. He has saved his two 
dollars registration fee but he has lost his time, his car-fare, and whatever 
chance he stood of the place. 

One year we sent Principal Poland to the Jersey City high school at 
S2500 ; that left a vacancy at Ilion which we filled by sending Principal Win- 
ne at $1600 ; that left a vacancy at Canastota which we filled by sending 
Principal Ottaway at $1200; that left a vacancy at Amsterdam Academy, and 
soon. 

Did you ever see people stand in line at the post-office waiting for their 
mail ? As each one is supplied he goes away, giving place to the next, and 
so there is a continual moving-up ; the man who keeps his place in the line 
will eventually get to the head. In no profession is there so frequent and 
so rapid movmg-up as in teaching. To get to the top, do your work well 
where you are and keep registered. Presently you will be the man that fits 
and will be elected, and if you do fit when you get there the Agency will 
keep its eye on you for the next fit. Try it. 

It is Important, however, not only to register, but to register in the 
Agency most likely to help you. Without reflection upon others it may be 
said with confidence that the School Bulletin Agency is safe and ti-ustworthy. 
Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools in Denver, Colo., and late president 
of the National Teachers' Association, said in the Colorado School Journal 
for July, 1890: 

" The Sc7wol Bidletin, edited, owned, and conducted by C. W. Bardeen, 
at Syracuse, N. Y., is an old and reliable school journal. Its proprietor is a 
school man and understands his business He is also at the head of an ed- 
ucational bureau As at present advised^ we are suspicious of bureaus unless 

we Tcnoiu the man at theheady 

" The man at the head " of the School Bulletin Agency makes personal 
selection of every teacher recommended. Send for circulars. 

C. W. BARDEEN, Proprietor, Syracuse, N. Y. 



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